The COVID-19 pandemic brought about unprecedented challenges across all populations. College students experienced difficulties including heightened stress, anxiety, mood problems, and detrimental effects on learning (Hu et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2020; Son et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020), worries about loss of jobs, completing studies, post-graduate employment, and negative impacts on social activities and health (Lee, 2020; Son et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020). Parents faced changes in employment and loss of income (Brown et al., 2020; Patrick et al., 2020), loss of childcare (Brown et al., 2020; Patrick et al., 2020), difficulties making housing payments and food insecurity (Monte & O’Donnell, 2020), increased isolation, lessened family support, and myriad concerns about the effects of COVID-19 on the health and well-being of their children and family members (Brown et al., 2020; Prime et al., 2020). Parents also reported increased personal stress and mental health symptoms and increases in children’s behavior problems during the pandemic (Brown et al., 2020; Kerr et al., 2021; Patrick et al., 2020). Mothers and low-income families experienced these challenges more frequently than any other group (Brown et al., 2020; Heggeness & Fields, 2020; Patrick et al., 2020).
For college students who are also parents, the effects of COVID-19 were likely amplified, as these students are recognized as a group that experiences unique challenges both as parents and as students (Lewis & Haynes, 2020). Student parents comprise a significant minority of college students. Nationally, approximately 22% of all college students, including 17% of those attending four-year public institutions, are parents (Cruse et al., 2019). Most of these student parents are mothers (70%), and single mothers make up 40% of all student parents. Student-parents are more likely to be students of color, have one or two children, and over half have children who are younger than age six. The prohibitive cost of education and lack of childcare are the greatest challenges for student parents (Williams et al., 2022). Financial stress is significant, and food and housing insecurity rates are as high as 53 and 68% respectively (Goldrick-Rab et al., 2020). The additional responsibilities associated with childcare and work can significantly impact course success, timely completion of degree requirements, and graduation rates (Wladis et al., 2018), resulting in physical and emotional stress (Goldrick-Rab & Sorensen, 2010). Prior to COVID-19 pandemic, student parents reported feeling isolated on campus, did not perceive campus resources as family-friendly, and were unaware of relevant policies about student parents, such as whether children were allowed in the classroom (Lewis & Haynes, 2020). Although there are limited data on parenting concerns of college student parents beyond childcare it is likely that student parents had similar concerns to those voiced by non-student parents about their children’s behaviors and emotional states during the COVID-19 crisis (Brown et al., 2020; Kerr et al., 2021; Patrick et al., 2020).
Despite their added risks, the experiences and needs of student parents during the COVID-19 crisis initially were unrecognized (Cruse et al., 2020; Lin et al., 2022). A recent survey found high levels of food and housing insecurity, especially among Black, Asian, and Latino student parents, as well as disproportionate experiences of job loss and cuts to hours and pay (Kienzl et al., 2022). However, comparisons to non-parenting students are lacking, which limits our understanding of the full scope of challenges specific to student parents. Qualitative studies, using small samples, suggest student parents experienced the loss of university and family-provided childcare, a lack of faculty understanding of student parents’ needs, difficulties in scheduling classes, and challenges balancing the care of children with academic requirements (Dayne et al., 2021; Manze et al., 2021), but these studies also did not include comparison to non-parenting students. Given the challenges faced by students who are parents, it is reasonable to expect that the added challenges of the pandemic would be associated with increased difficulties, especially compared to non-parenting students. However, only a few states require universities to report parenting status, and the lack of comparative data is a critical barrier to fully understanding the needs of student parents and how these needs differ from non-parent students (Lewis & Haynes, 2020), and leaves institutions without a way to identify this underrepresented group or to tailor support services and policies for student-parents, and especially during a crisis such as the pandemic. Furthermore, although the immediate needs of student parents deserve recognition and response, addressing their needs potentially could result in longer-term benefits for institutions of higher education. For example, as colleges and universities grapple with recent and pandemic-related changes in enrollment and student demographics, including but not limited to greater percentages of women, students of color, older, and other “nontraditional students” (Bouchrika, 2023; National Student Clearinghouse Research Center, 2023), support for student parents may provide an avenue to improve recruitment, retention, and graduation rates, and, importantly, improve the health and well-being of students and their families.
This study sought to address gaps in the literature by identifying the needs and experiences of student parents compared to non-parent students during the COVID-19 pandemic. As noted, there are limited comparison studies of student parents vs non-parenting students either before or during the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, we are not aware of any studies that consider the specific university or institutional contexts that may contribute to their experiences. This study provides a snapshot of student parent experiences at a medium-sized public university in Louisiana. The Louisiana context is relevant. Based on estimates derived from national data, 23% of all college students in this state are parents, and 46% of those are single parents, yet only 17% of the state’s colleges and universities provide childcare support, and details on financial support and case management are lacking (Cruse et al., 2020). However, the actual number of students who are parents and their specific needs are not tracked at the university nor at the state level in Louisiana. At the time and location of this study, there were few specific accommodations for student parents. The childcare center was open, using pandemic guidelines, but it had limited availability. There were no policies aimed at student parents or their children, and no organizations specifically for student parents. Student parents could take advantage of any resources available to students in general, but these resources were difficult to access if they were off campus and/or involved in distance learning programs. Given that previous studies emphasize the economic, social, and mental health vulnerabilities of student parents (Goldrick-Rab et al., 2020; Goldrick-Rab & Sorensen, 2010; Williams et al., 2022; Wladis et al., 2018), recognizing the needs of student parents is particularly salient because this state ranks among the lowest compared to other states on measures of overall well-being and economic, educational, and health outcomes for children and families (Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2023). Thus, student parents in Louisiana may experience even greater risks for financial, childcare, educational, and health/mental health challenges compared to national samples. Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic hit Louisiana particularly hard; the state’s mortality rates from COVID-19 were among the highest in the U.S. (Michelson, 2021), with significantly higher death rates for Black compared to White citizens (Price-Haywood et al., 2020), potentially adding significant stresses and experiences of loss for Louisiana’s college students.
Given the lack of comparison data and lack of local data centering on student parents and the urgent need to understand the needs of student parents during a time of public health crisis the specific objectives of this study were 1) to provide a realistic snapshot representing student parents at a mid-sized state university in the Gulf South and 2) to identify specific needs, concerns, priorities, and resources identified by student parents, compared to non-parent students during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study offers a significant contribution to the literature by addressing a critical gap in our understanding of how these two populations navigate university life during a major crisis. The findings also contribute to developing empirical frameworks informing research and the development of holistic, evidence-informed resources and interventions for student parents.
Methods
Using a cross-sectional approach, the research team created the Higher Education Student and Student Parent Survey (HESSPS) to identify and compare the needs of student parents and non-parent students. The development of the survey items was informed by a thorough literature review to ensure that both common student issues and parent-specific concerns were addressed. Data were collected in the Spring 2021 semester, one year after the pandemic began but while the pandemic and related university restrictions were still underway. This time period provided a unique opportunity to gain understanding of the ongoing impact of COVID-19 on both student parents and non-parent students. The study was approved by the University’s Institutional Review Board (IRB).
Participants
All undergraduate and graduate students (N = 14,767) enrolled at the university were invited to participate in the study via announcement notification through the university-wide email system. The invitation described the study, including the expected time for completion, University IRB approval, consent to participate in the study, and a weblink for direct access to the survey. As an incentive, all participants who completed the HESSPS were offered the option to enter a drawing for one of forty $20 bookstore cards. Contact information for voluntary entry into the bookstore drawing was separated from the survey data to ensure the anonymity of the survey responses.
Measures
Higher Education Student and Student Parent Survey (HESSPS)
To develop the HESSPS, the research team conducted a review of the recent literature to identify issues relevant to both non-parent students and student parents during the COVID-19 pandemic. Based on the review, the initial pool reflected the broad range of challenges and concerns students experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic. Related items were grouped into apriori categories as determined and agreed upon by the research team. These categories included general personal concerns, university-related concerns, access to basic needs, pandemic-related concerns, and personal health and wellness. An additional, separate set of items examined the experiences unique to student parents, including parent-related personal concerns, university concerns, COVID-related concerns, access to basic needs, personal health and well-being, and child adjustment and well-being. The item pool was refined via several rounds of discussion among the research team, with the aim of decreasing item redundancy, improving clarity, and capturing the range of experiences described in the literature review. All research team members agreed that each item belonged in the survey and to the category assigned. Prior to beginning the study, the survey was pilot tested with a small group (N = 12) of undergraduate and graduate students and faculty to gain further input on readability, coherence, and relevance of items, ease of administration, and to eliminate redundant items. The final version of the HESSPS included 72 items, including demographic data, to be completed by all students, with an additional 106 items to be completed by student parents. Participants indicated their agreement with each item on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Based on the pilot testing, completion time was estimated to be less than 20 min. The software platform Qualtrics (Qualtrics.com) was used for survey design and data collection.
Data Analysis
Descriptive data provided a picture of the overall sample and the general experiences of the student parents. Quantitative analyses were performed in the R statistical computing language and environment Version 3.6.0 (R-3.6.0; R Core Team, 2019). We systematically excluded survey items from each category to ensure an internal reliability alpha level of at least 0.70. As a result, there were varying item counts across various categories. We opted to use the mean score to represent the measure for each category, allowing each category to be proportionately represented and facilitating direct comparisons (Nunnally, 1978). Students were categorized into two age groups, with those aged 25 years and younger being in the “Young” group and those older than 25 years in the “Old” group. The rationale for this age cutoff was because the age of 25 is recognized by many institutions as a milestone characterized as enhanced cognitive maturity and life experiences that might impact educational motivation and academic performance (Araas & Adams, 2009; Brittain & Dinger, 2015; Lindley et al., 2008). Two-sample and four-sample proportion tests were performed to observe the differences between student parents and non-parent students by age group. We used listwise deletion to manage missing values, ensuring that only complete cases were included in the analysis.
Survey Results
Participant Demographics
A total of 784 undergraduate and graduate students consented to participate in the survey, approximately 5% of the entire student body. The survey yielded responses from students from 38 of the 41 departments across all the university colleges and the Graduate School. The data were weighted using demographic characteristics available from the university’s enrollment data from the same semester. Aligning the sample to university-wide demographics was essential to improve the representativeness of the sample and address the issue of sampling bias, so that the results based on this sample could reflect the greater student population at the university (Elliott, 2020) (Table 1). Based on the weighted data, the percentage of undergraduates was slightly higher, and the percentage of graduate students was slightly lower, but gender and racial characteristics were similar to university data (citation blinded).
Table 1
Original and weighted demographics description of survey sample
Characteristic | Original sample % | Weighted sample % |
|---|---|---|
Enrollment status | ||
Undergraduate | 72.5 | 83.9 |
Graduate | 27.5 | 16.1 |
Work statusa | ||
Full-time | 29.3 | 21.4 |
Part-time | 43.4 | 47.6 |
None | 27.4 | 30.5 |
Ethnicity | ||
White/Caucasian | 66.8 | 62.3 |
Black | 16.9 | 20.0 |
Asian | 6.8 | 2.9 |
Hispanic/Latino | 3.8 | 5.8 |
Other | 6.3 | 9.1 |
Age | ||
Age < 20 | 18.2 | 28.0 |
Age > = 20 & age < 22 | 27.1 | 27.8 |
Age > = 22 & age < 25 | 15.6 | 20.4 |
Age > = 25 | 39.2 | 23.8 |
Gender | ||
Female | 68.7 | 57.5 |
Male | 28.1 | 42.5 |
Other | 3.2 | b |
Parenting status | ||
Yes | 22.6 | 15.0 |
No | 77.4 | 85.0 |
Pregnant | ||
Yes (n = 9) | 1.2 | 0.9 |
No | 98.5 | 99.0 |
The original and weighted demographic characteristics of the student parents are shown in Table 2. Based on the weighted data, student parents comprised 15% of the total sample, significantly lower than the estimate of 23% for the state (Cruse et al., 2020). Approximately 11% of undergraduates were parents, and slightly more than one-third of graduate students (34%) were parents. Nine students reported being pregnant. Compared to the general student sample, student parents were more likely to be graduate students (16.1% vs. 36.3%) and working full-time (21.4% vs. 60.8%). More than half of the student parents identified as Caucasian/White, but a greater percentage of African American/Black students were parents compared to the general student sample (30.5% vs. 20%). Student parents were older (mean = 36.3 years) than non-parent students (mean = 23.9 years). Notably, no student parent respondents were under the age of 20 (vs. 28% of the general sample), and slightly more than 10% were between the ages of 20–24 years (vs 48.2% of the general sample). The age difference further underscores that student parents typically enter higher education later and may be balancing longer-term personal and professional responsibilities. Student parents also reported an average of two children (range 1–8 children), and the majority (N = 106, 63%) had children five years of age or younger. Most student parents in this survey (85%) had children before entering the university.
Table 2
Original (N = 167) and weighted demographic description of student parents
Characteristic | Original sample % | Weighted sample % |
|---|---|---|
Enrollment status | ||
Undergraduate | 51.9 | 63.7 |
Graduate | 48.1 | 36.3 |
Work statusa | ||
Full-time | 60.8 | 60.8 |
Part-time | 24.7 | 13.0 |
None | 14.5 | 26.2 |
Ethnicity | ||
White/Caucasian | 64.5 | 54.5 |
Black | 24.7 | 30.5 |
Asian | 3.6 | 1.9 |
Hispanic/Latino | 3.0 | 5.9 |
Other | 4.2 | 7.2 |
Age | ||
Age < 20 | 0 | 0 |
Age > = 20 & age < 22 | 2.4 | 3.5 |
Age > = 22 & age < 25 | 3.0 | 7.3 |
Age > = 25 | 94.6 | 89.2 |
Gender | ||
Female | 75.4 | 60.6 |
Male | 24.0 | 39.4 |
Other | 0.6 | b |
Pregnant | ||
Yes (n = 9) | 3.0 | 2.5 |
No | 97.0 | 97.5 |
General Concerns of Student Parents
Because we were not comparing to the full sample, we used the original data set to describe the general concerns of student parents. Student parent respondents overwhelmingly agreed or strongly agreed they intended to complete their coursework (91%), and a similar percentage indicated they were motivated by the desire to build a better life for their families through education (90%). The majority of student parents reported feeling guilty at times about having to prioritize schoolwork (83%), and almost all reported they prioritized parenting over self-care (85%). These findings illustrate one of the key distinctions between student parents and non-parent students—that is, student parents have priorities that may supersede academic commitment, and they face the challenge of juggling these important parenting responsibilities while maintaining their academic progress. Most of the student parents (73%) reported they missed 0–5 classes per semester because of their children being sick or inconsistent childcare arrangements. Two-thirds (66%) “felt different” from their non-parent student peers, suggesting they felt disconnected from college life, and a similar percentage (65%) agreed or strongly agreed about need for building community among student parents.
Only 43% felt supported as student parents by the University, although a similar minority found instructors to be understanding (42%) or supportive (32%). These numbers indicate that universities may not be equipped to address the specific needs of student parents, leaving it to instructors to determine how to respond to individual student parents’ needs, further emphasizing the gap in institutional support systems for this group.
Few student parents (16%) reported family-friendly resources on campus (e.g., diaper changing facilities, lactation rooms, family restrooms, child play spaces), family-friendly activities (8%), or representation of student parent needs through the Student Government Association (7%). Approximately 70% believed there was a need for policies to address the needs of student parents, and 87% indicated a need for specific policies regarding make-up assignments and bringing their children into the classroom. Financial support was a major source of stress for 74% of the student parent respondents, and the majority (65%) indicated they would take advantage of university-provided resources, such as care packages and other resources to meet basic (housing, food) and child needs (e.g., diapers, school supplies, cleaning supplies) if they were available. These data suggest the needs of student parents indeed fall outside of the attention of usual university support systems and highlight their need for institutional support, especially for basic necessities that are essential to their role as caregivers.
In terms of specific parenting concerns, student parents strongly agreed or agreed they had worries about their children’s health (67%), development (56%), and learning (68%), and behavior (50%), although most agreed or strongly agreed they had resources to meet those needs for their children (80, 75, 72, and 52%, respectively). Not surprising, the majority of student parents (75%) reported concerns with their child’s adjustment to pandemic-related measures that affected their children’s education and socialization. Many student parents, 73%, doubted their success as a parent. Yet despite their challenges, a substantial proportion of student parents also strongly agreed or agreed there were positive outcomes because of the stay-at-home pandemic measures, including having more time to be with their children (67%), strengthened family relationships (68%), and increased family coping skills (57%). These findings demonstrate the nuances of parenting while a student, as these distinctions are key to understanding the broader implications of how crises affect different student populations.
Adjustment of General Students Compared to Student Parents during the Pandemic
The results of two-sample and four-sample proportion tests using the weighted sample are summarized in Table 3. Compared to non-parent students, significantly more student parents reported resource awareness, receiving social support, positive experiences and significantly fewer endorsed psychosocial-emotional problems, financial problems, academic difficulties, and negative experiences during the pandemic. Conversely, significantly more non-parent students reported financial insecurity, academic difficulties, psycho-social-emotional health issues, and overall negative pandemic-related experiences. There were no differences between the student parents and non-parent students on resource use, housing insecurity, or physical health. These findings are a surprise as they suggest student parents, while facing greater responsibilities and logistical challenges during the pandemic, were more resilient or better supported in areas where non-parent students struggled.
Table 3
Proportions of student parents (P) and non-parent students (NP) by age (young vs. old) reporting yes (vs. no) for the study variables (N = 14,724) based on weighted data
Study variable | Student parents (P) (n = 2203) | Non-parent students (NP) (n = 12,521) | Difference (χ2) (P – NP) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age group | Young | Old | Young | Old | |
Resource awareness | |||||
Across age groups | 70.4 | 59.0 | 84.22*** | ||
By age group | 86.1c | 66.7a | 57.9b | 61.3ab | 54.36*** |
Resource use | |||||
Across age groups | 28.8 | 25.9 | 2.38 | ||
By age group | 23.8ab | 29.0ab | 27.0a | 33.6b | 15.43** |
Social support | |||||
Across age groups | 77.3 | 63.9 | 89.67*** | ||
By age group | 58.4bc | 79.7a | 63.5c | 69.7b | 90.45*** |
Housing insecurity | |||||
Across age groups | 4.3 | 5.6 | 3.03 | ||
By age group | 22.8c | 4.0a | 5.3a | 12.0b | 107.34*** |
Financial insecurity | |||||
Across age groups | 40.5 | 51.3 | 47.16*** | ||
By age group | 58.4bc | 43.6a | 50.8c | 57.2b | 31.05*** |
Academic difficulties | |||||
Across age groups | 48.2 | 63.8 | 95.89*** | ||
By age group | 100.0c | 45.4a | 64.8b | 63.5b | 175.87*** |
Physical health concerns | |||||
Across age groups | 47.6 | 48.6 | 0.31 | ||
By age group | 32.7c | 47.5a | 47.6a | 58.0b | 39.05*** |
Psycho-socio-emotional concerns | |||||
Across age groups | 57.6 | 72.4 | 87.45*** | ||
By age group | 58.4ab | 60.0a | 73.0c | 66.8b | 72.53*** |
Positive experiences | |||||
Across age groups | 20.0 | 13.1 | 44.46*** | ||
By age group | 11.9c | 21.8a | 12.2b | 12.0b | 59.21*** |
Negative experiences | |||||
Across age groups | 40.5 | 64.2 | 262.32*** | ||
By age group | 88.1d | 36.4a | 65.1c | 54.2b | 294.98*** |
However, when examining the differences between student parents and non-parent students, we found additional differences when the two groups divided by age into “old” and “young” groups. Older student parents, compared to younger student parents and older and younger non-parent students, showed the highest proportion reporting social and financial support, and the lowest proportion reporting academic difficulties. In contrast, the younger student parent group reported the highest level of resource awareness, but lowest level of resource use. Although they endorsed the fewest physical and psychosocial and emotional concerns, they also had highest proportion of financial insecurity, housing insecurity, academic difficulties, and general negative experiences, and the fewest positive experiences. Notably, young non-parenting students had the highest percentage with psychosocial-emotional concerns, and the second-highest percentage with negative experiences. Older non-parenting students had the highest level of resource use, perhaps because they also had the highest level of health concerns and the second highest level of housing and financial insecurity. These findings highlight the heterogeneity within the general and student parent groups. In this sample, older student parents appeared to be the most resilient among student groups, despite the challenges of the pandemic. and young student parents were most challenged, consistent with findings in previous studies (Lewis & Haynes, 2020). The finding that young non-parenting students had the highest proportion reporting psychosocial and emotional difficulties suggest that the stresses related to the pandemic may not have been sufficiently addressed, and is consistent with studies showing the impact of the pandemic on college students in general (Hu et al., 2022; Lee, 2020; Liu et al., 2020; Son et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020). The high proportion of older non-parent students reporting physical health concerns and also housing insecurity may be related to pandemic concerns (for example, fears of getting COVID-19) and its effects (e.g., job and income loss).
Discussion
Although the unique needs and challenges of student parents have received increased attention in the past several years, student parents remain an invisible subset of students on many campuses. Most universities (and states) do not systematically identify or track students who are parents, limiting their ability to provide supports and resources (Gault et al., 2020). The only data available on student parents for the state in which this study was conducted had been derived from national samples which included estimates from both two-and four-year colleges (Cruse et al., 2018). By examining the experiences of student parents at the institutional level and comparing their experiences to non-parent students, a realistic snapshot emerged of their needs and resources during the public health crisis of the COVID-19 pandemic. Relative to previous national (Cruse et al., 2019) and state (Cruse et al., 2018) estimates, we found a lower percentage of undergraduate students who identified as parenting (11% vs 17%, Cruse et al., 2019) and a higher percentage of graduate students who were parents. Like other studies (Cruse et al., 2019), the student parents were significantly older than non-parent students. In this sample, student parents were more likely to be working full-time, graduate students, and Caucasian/White, although a greater percentage were Black compared to the general student sample. The majority of student parents in this study (63%) reported having children under age 5, higher than reported in national samples (Cruse et al., 2019), and 85% had children before they entered the university. That no student parents reported being under age 20 was surprising (compared to 28% of the overall sample being under age 20); this suggests there are few parenting students at this institution, a reluctance of the youngest student parents to participate in studies, or their being overwhelmed by the demands they face. Similarly, few participants identified as being pregnant. Although we did not gather information about pregnancy intention, unintended pregnancy rates are highest for women ages 20–24 (Rossen et al., 2023), so it is possible that pregnancy was underreported because of fear of stigma or other consequences, despite anonymity of answers to the survey. University-related concerns were similar to those reported in other studies and were exacerbated by the pandemic: elevated levels of financial stress, inadequate university and faculty support, disconnection from peers, insufficient family resources. While these findings are not surprising, they reinforce that parents are a significant and underrepresented proportion of university students, and provide a more accurate description of student parents compared to estimates derived from national samples.
Importantly, over half to two-thirds of student parents in this study acknowledged significant concerns about their children’s health, development, learning, and behavior; we do not have comparative data to determine if this level of concern was increased due to the pandemic, or if this is typical for student parents, although three-quarters of student parents were specifically concerned about their children’s adjustment during the pandemic. While their children’s health and well-being are concerns of most parents, data are limited about the parenting concerns of student parents beyond the need for childcare. As the majority of this student parent sample had children under age 5, it is also important to consider the physical and emotional requirements needed to care for infants and young children, which are demanding and exhausting. Furthermore, a plethora of research demonstrates how children’s experiences during the first five years of life are critical to later health and development; predictability, emotional availability, sensitive responsiveness are key to healthy early development (Zeanah & Zeanah, 2019) yet these parenting characteristics may be difficult to sustain on a regular basis with the overlapping and competing demands of higher education. We are not aware of any studies that associate student parents with poor parenting but worries about their children’s well-being likely contributed to the high percentage of students who expressed guilt over prioritizing their studies and doubting their success as a parent. Student parents were most likely to have resources to address child health needs, and least likely to have resources to address behavioral concerns. Student parents must address those needs in the off-campus community, if available, as the university did not provide resources or guidance to support students’ families. The exception was a small on-campus counseling program clinic that could provide mental health services to children of students, and parenting education provided through the childcare center, but both of these resources were either unavailable or limited during the pandemic.
These findings demonstrate the parenting challenges of student parents go well beyond the need for childcare services. In addition to the importance of universities tracking student parents for an accurate assessment of their educational needs, experiences, and progress, more research is needed to gain a more nuanced understanding of the complexities of parenting a child while a balancing school and other family responsibilities.
Overall, student parents did better than non-parent students across seven of the ten variables examined, but there was a stark contrast between the older and younger student parents. The young student parent group reported the highest proportion of financial insecurity, housing insecurity, academic difficulties, and general negative experiences, and the fewest positive experiences, compared to all comparison groups. Conversely, the older student parent group, compared to all groups, showed the greatest proportion with social support and positive experiences, and the lowest proportion reporting academic difficulties and pandemic-related negative experiences, suggesting that older student parents are more resilient and able to leverage social support networks to manage their responsibilities. In contrast, within the non-parenting groups, older non-parenting students had the highest level of health concerns and the second highest level of financial insecurity and housing insecurity though they reported higher use of resources. Young non-parenting students had the highest proportion reporting psychosocial and emotional difficulties. These distinctions highlight the variability of the non-parent and student parent experience, where age, access to resources, and family structures significantly influence their academic journey.
Despite their challenges, student parents were able to identify positive aspects of the pandemic, including spending more time with their children and strengthening family relationships. The high proportion of student parents who acknowledged their strong determination to complete their studies in order to improve the well-being of their families may underlie their appreciation of the value of family time, as well as their ability to flexibly respond and adapt to crises.
Strengths and Limitations
Survey research has several limitations that require caution in interpreting the outcomes, including the possibility of selection bias and non-response bias (Fowler, 2013). This study had a low response rate, possibly because the survey took place toward the end of the semester when other responsibilities may have taken priority. Nevertheless, Fosnacht et al. (2017) found that college student surveys can be reliable even with a low response rate (5–10%) if the sample size is at least 500. Our sample size of 784 was sufficient to provide insights into meaningful differences between student parents and non-parent students. Notably, we had few pregnant students (n = 9), and no student parents under the age of 20, two groups that may be the most vulnerable among student parents. Although the weighted data suggests we have a representative sample, the data may underestimate the number of pregnant and young student parents at the university. We did not use standardized screening measures for anxiety, stress, or depression, focusing instead on the broader experiences of both groups during the pandemic. However, the survey items derived by the research team were based on issues consistently identified in the literature as relevant to student parents and non-parenting students during COVID-19, and pilot testing indicated the items were clear, coherent, and relevant. Finally, because the data collection took place during the pandemic, the generalizability and replicability of these findings may be limited. Nevertheless, we believe they provide important insights about the differential impact of major crises on various student populations.
This study also has a several strengths. First, by using weighted data, our sample was representative of the university’s student population and provided a more accurate description of student parents than currently available from estimates derived from national data (Cruse et al., 2018). The findings reinforce and extend previous studies of college students who are parents and contribute to the dearth of studies that directly compare the experiences and needs of student parents to non-parent college students. This comparative approach is particularly valuable in identifying how institutional support systems may need to adapt to serve the distinct needs of student parents, especially in times of crisis. Not surprising and similar to other studies (Dayne et al., 2021; Williams et al., 2022), student parents, in general, struggled with financial and childcare responsibilities, as well as insufficient university resources to address their specific needs.
The literature has focused primarily on young student-parents with limited support (Cruse et al., 2019; Kienzl et al., 2022; Lewis & Haynes, 2020), and this study also found the young student-parent group was the most vulnerable. Additionally, however, we found that older student parents fared better not only compared to younger student parents but also compared to older and younger non-parent students, demonstrating that a subset of student parents are able to identify and enlist resources and value their independence. This finding does not undermine the needs of those most vulnerable but highlights the importance of recognizing, engaging, and supporting student parents across a range of needs.
Future Directions
There remains a great need for improved data collection on student parents (Gault et al., 2020). Future studies should continue to build on the comparative framework introduced here to further investigate how student parents differ from their non-parent peers in both their challenges and their coping strategies. While national data are useful in describing the overall needs of student parents, national data includes student parents attending community colleges. Community colleges have higher enrollments of student parents (Cruse et al., 2019; Lewis & Haynes, 2020; Williams et al., 2022) and the two-year educational experience may not correspond with student parents who attend baccalaureate and graduate school programs. Furthermore, with postsecondary enrollment declining even prior to the pandemic, universities must consider strategies to enhance enrollment and retention (Southern Regional Education Board, 2021, p. 15). Student-parents typically take longer to graduate (Lewis & Haynes, 2020), but student parent graduation rates are not accounted for in the Louisiana data. On the other hand, student parents often make better grades than their non-parent peers (Cruse et al., 2019) and we have demonstrated that student parents are highly determined and motivated to complete their education. Harnessing this motivation by identifying resources most salient to student parents may make the university more attractive to parents considering going to college and may enhance their ability to complete their studies (Marcus, 2024). This does not mean the university necessarily must directly provide a wide range of resources for families, but awareness of student parent needs and avenues for support are essential. For example, universities can consider partnering with community services that address basic needs, childcare, or healthcare (Anderson & Green, 2022). Innovative strategies are being developed around the country, and include opportunities at the federal and state levels, such incorporating Head Start on campus (Cruse & Holtzman, 2021). Because of the time, personal, and personnel investment of graduate study, universities are beginning to recognize the benefits of providing support for graduate students who are parents (Yoo & Marshall, 2022). The University of Alabama, University of Michigan, Stanford, and the University of California at Berkeley provide examples of the range of resources developed for graduate student parents. Notably, postbaccalaureate enrollment is expected to increase over the next decade (National Center for Education Statistics, 2023a).
The lack of adequate data for specific university undergraduate and graduate programs also limits the ability to examine the academic trajectories of these students. We found that 30–40% of student parents found their instructors to be supportive and flexible. We do not know if these positive interactions occurred at the individual student-instructor level, reflect the instructor’s general classroom policies, or may reflect the department’s attitude toward students. It raises the question of whether academic departments with a preponderance of female students and faculty, such as nursing or education, might be more flexible in interactions with parenting students. On the other hand, the needs and challenges of the more than one million male student parents are underrecognized and deserve attention as well (Boesch, 2023). Institutional level data could help to identify departments that either create pathways or barriers for student parents that could help guide university policy.
Currently, a number of organizations are making recommendations, consistent with currently available data, to guide institutions of higher education as they begin to address the needs of student parents. The Aspen Institute’s Postsecondary Success for Parents Initiative (Ascend at the Aspen Institute, n.d.), the Urban Institute’s roadmap of recommendations for universities to consider as they develop policies, resources, practices, and investments to address the range of needs of students who are parents (Anderson & Green, 2022), the Institute for Women’s Policy Research state policy resources (Doorley, 2023), and the Annie E. Casey Foundation (2024) are examples of such resources. Future research should continue to explore the direct impact of such initiatives on student well-being and academic success, including the needs and approaches for supporting pregnant students (Anderson & Green, 2022; Roy et al., 2018), fathers (Boesch, 2023), and graduate students who are parents (Springer et al., 2009; Yoo & Marshall, 2022).
Importantly, future research should explore the nuances of student parent parenting experiences that go beyond the most commonly identified needs for childcare and financial support (Williams et al., 2022). In this study, as well as others (Wladis et al., 2018; Cruse et al., 2019), a majority of student parents have children under six years of age. Young children’s physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development depends on positive, consistent, and nurturing relationships with caregivers and is vulnerable to parental stress (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2004; 2005/2014; Zeanah & Zeanah, 2019). Given the significant amount of stress student parents feel, the effects on the immediate or long-term parent-child relationships or child health and development are key areas for future research. Additionally, we had few participants who identified as being pregnant, but it is possible this is an underestimate of pregnant students on campus. Although our campus offers sexuality-related health services (e.g., identification and treatment for sexually transmitted infections, birth control), pregnancy services are referred off campus. There is a need for better data on the health and support needs of pregnant students on college campuses (Anderson & Green, 2022).
It is clear student parents comprise a significant yet often invisible subgroup of university students. While unique support is needed, student parents’ determination to be successful and their commitment to completing studies while balancing complex family needs, even within the context of a major public health crisis, provides valuable perspectives about how to harness personal, family, and university resources for success for parenting and non-parenting students. Moreover, as colleges and universities grapple with declining enrollments and changes in student demographics (Bouchrika, 2023; National Center for Education Statistics, 2023b; National Student Clearinghouse Research Center, 2023), intentional efforts to support student parents may provide an avenue to improve recruitment, retention, and graduation rates, and, most importantly, improve the health and well-being of students and their families so these students can accomplish their educational and family goals.
Acknowledgements
This study was approved by the University of Louisiana at Lafayette Institutional Review Board. Participants provided consent to complete the anonymous survey and to participate in individual interviews.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
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