Dispositional mindfulness has been associated with lower posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other negative health symptoms in the police population. Of the various mindfulness facets (i.e., non-judging, observing, describing, acting with awareness), non-judging has been demonstrated to be the strongest predictor of lower PTSD symptoms in police academy cadets. The mechanisms by which non-judging may lead to enhanced health outcomes in police officers are poorly understood and require further investigation.
Method
The purpose of the current study was to test a model involving a pathway from pre-trauma mindful non-judging to PTSD symptoms and ultimately posttraumatic growth (PTG) that is mediated by worldviews in a sample of police academy cadets (n = 379). Data were collected via a survey packet distributed at a police academy located in a Southern state of the United States. We examined the relationships among demographic factors, adverse child events, negative life events, mindful non-judgment, world assumptions, PTSD, and PTG using path analysis.
Results
The results indicated that positive worldviews served as a mediator between dispositional mindful non-judging and lower PTSD symptoms, which ultimately led to lower PTG.
Conclusions
These findings have important implications for the selection and training of police academy cadets with the goal of increasing resilience to occupational trauma exposure. Additionally, these results have clinical implications regarding the treatment of officers experiencing symptoms of PTSD.
Preregistration
This study is not preregistered.
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Occupational exposure to traumatic events is a common occurrence for law enforcement officers. Examples of incidents frequently experienced by officers include being injured intentionally or accidentally, witnessing a colleague injured or killed intentionally or accidentally, being threatened with a weapon, being exposed to a life-threatening disease, seeing someone die, witnessing a decaying corpse, and witnessing a physical or sexual abuse survivor (Weiss et al., 2010). Police trauma tends to be more complex compared to trauma experienced by some other populations. That is, officers are frequently and repeatedly exposed to different types of trauma (e.g., events involving threat to self and the witnessing of harm to others) over many years throughout the course of their careers (Chopko et al., 2015; Weiss et al., 2010). Trauma exposure may result in distressing experiences including the development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms such as intrusive memories, sleep disturbances, avoidance behaviors, and guilt. The development of negative thoughts and beliefs about the self, others, and the world (referred to as worldviews) are also a common experience following trauma exposure and are included in the DSM-5 PTSD diagnostic criteria (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Worldview changes are thought to influence the nature of posttraumatic reactions experienced by officers (Chopko et al., 2022).
Worldviews have been defined as a “system of core beliefs, values, and attitudes concerning the nature and purpose of the universe and of humanity and how one should live their life. These beliefs, values, and attitudes guide our perceptions, interpretations, and interactions with the world” (Woodard, 2021, p. 1). Additionally, a core aspect of worldviews involves the level of control one perceives they have over life events (Kaler, 2009). Worldviews are thought to begin forming in infancy and early childhood (Richter & Kruglanski, 2004), continue to develop throughout childhood and adolescence (Cieciuch et al., 2016), and may not become fully solidified until early adulthood (Fisher, 2012). Importantly, worldviews may be positive (e.g., believing most people are good) or negative (e.g., believing most people are bad) and have an influence on mental health outcomes (Greenberg & Arndt, 2012).
Worldview-based models of traumatic stress such as shattered assumptions theory (Janoff-Bulman, 1992) purport that PTSD symptoms stem from shattered worldviews. That is, the seismic and overwhelming nature of the traumatic experience is incompatible with, and cannot be assimilated into, the pre-trauma worldviews. According to the cognitive worldview model, appraising and judging the extent to which the trauma violated pre-existing worldviews is associated with greater PTSD symptom levels. For instance, appraisal of these belief violations leading to PTSD symptoms was found to be mediated by negative worldviews (Park et al., 2012). The negative worldviews that commonly develop after trauma exposure may foster a continued sense of threat and fear that exacerbate and intensify PTSD symptoms (Ehlers & Clark, 2000; Kimble et al., 2018; Mitchell et al., 2017). Worldviews involving responsibility for traumatic events resulting in blame and guilt are thought to contribute to greater PTSD symptoms (Jinkerson, 2016). Alternately, maintaining positive worldviews may enhance the resiliency of the individual resulting in fewer stress symptoms (Brown, 2008; McNally, 2003).
In addition to negative physical and psychological consequences, trauma exposure is often reported to result in positive outcomes including posttraumatic growth (PTG). Worldview changes are also thought to play a key role in the development of PTG (Chopko et al., 2022; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). Examples of PTG include gaining a new appreciation for life, finding new paths in life, experiencing an increase in spiritual or religious connections, having enhanced personal relationships, and developing an increased sense of personal strength (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). The development of PTG does not instigate a reduction in PTSD symptoms, and both can be experienced simultaneously at high levels. Significant and positive associations between PTG and PTSD symptoms have been reported in many trauma-exposed populations, as well as police academy cadets (Chopko et al., 2022). The theoretical model of PTG maintains that the shattering of pre-existing worldviews following trauma exposure forces the creation of new worldviews to align with the traumatic event. PTG involves the development of positive and growth-oriented worldviews that are thought to occur through a process of rumination including cognitive appraisal and making judgments about the traumatic experience (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). Further, PTG has been studied as two distinct types in the police population including cognitive PTG (e.g., having a greater appreciation for life) and behavioral PTG (e.g., taking action to establish a new path in life; Chopko et al., 2017).
Mindfulness-based interventions have increasingly been recommended to reduce traumatic stress symptoms and enhance health outcomes (Kearney & Simpson, 2020). Mindfulness involves various facets including observing, acting with awareness, non-reactivity, non-judging, and describing (Baer et al., 2006). The intentional increase of these skills through interventions, training, and practice (and that may only persist short-term) is referred to as state mindfulness. Mindfulness-based interventions and training provided to police officers have been found to reduce health issues such as PTSD symptoms, sleep problems, anger, anxiety, depression, emotion regulation difficulties, and burnout while improving variables such as positive affect, happiness, and heart rate variability (Grupe et al., 2021; Hoeve et al., 2021; Khatib et al., 2022; Krick & Felfe, 2020; Navarrete et al., 2022). Regarding mindfulness facets, Hoeve et al. (2021) reported that increases in non-judging and acting with awareness resulting from mindfulness-based interventions were the most important in reducing different types of stress (e.g., general stress, occupational stress, stress symptoms related to trauma) in the police population.
Dispositional mindfulness (also referred to as trait mindfulness), on the other hand, is considered the innate (i.e., not requiring training or practice), enduring ability to employ the various mindful facets (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Frewen et al., 2011). Thus, dispositional mindfulness is not dependent on interventions or training to develop or enhance and is instead viewed as a preexisting personality trait. Dispositional mindfulness facets have been reported to be present in children as young as kindergarten age (Pritchard et al., 2018). Dispositional non-judging involves the innate ability to accept experiences without making judgments about them (Baer et al., 2006). Although the various mindfulness facets have been significantly correlated with trauma symptoms, greater dispositional mindful non-judging has clearly been shown to be the only unique predictor of lower PTSD symptoms in police academy cadets (Chopko et al., 2022). That is, non-judging is thought to be a salient protective trait regarding negative posttraumatic reactions (i.e., PTSD symptoms).
In contrast and pertaining to PTG, Chopko et al. (2022) reported that higher non-judging was significantly associated with lower levels of PTG in police academy cadets. Thus, while dispositional non-judging may be a protective factor reducing the likelihood of developing greater traumatic stress symptoms, it may not promote salutogenic post-trauma outcomes such as PTG (Wu et al., 2015). As noted above, a factor implicated in the development of PTG is the shattering of worldviews. It is possible that non-judging prevents the shattering of worldviews necessary for PTG by mitigating the development of intense PTSD symptoms. That is, developing greater PTSD symptoms is a necessary step in shattering worldviews which in turn promotes PTG.
The mechanisms by which mindful non-judging may lead to lower health symptoms are poorly understood, requiring further investigation. For instance, if dispositional non-judging proves to be a protective factor that prevents that development of greater PTSD symptoms, those applying for policing positions could be screened for this trait during the psychological assessment phase of the hiring process. Better understanding this variable may also lead to more effective trauma resiliency training for academy cadets. Additionally, if non-judging proves to inhibit the development of PTG, then additional interventions may need to be developed to foster this salutogenic aspect of wellness following exposure to traumatic events.
The purpose of this study was to test a model involving a pathway from pre-trauma mindful non-judging to PTSD symptoms and ultimately posttraumatic growth (PTG), mediated by worldviews, in a sample of police academy cadets. We hypothesized that positive worldviews would mediate the relationship between pre-trauma non-judging and lower PTSD symptoms, ultimately leading to lower PTG.
Method
Participants
Participants in the study were police cadets undergoing training at a United States basic police academy in a Southern state. As shown (Table 1), our sample was primarily male (92.00%), white (91.10%), and married or in a committed relationship (62.60%). About 90% (M = 26.63) were 35 years old or younger, and 37% (M = 14.34 years) had a college degree or higher.
Table 1
Demographic characteristics and descriptive statistics for study variables (n = 350)
The researchers recruited the participants at the academy site following their normally scheduled training classes. The study was introduced to a total of 425 cadets and 379 agreed to participate, resulting in an approximately 89% participation rate. The researchers verbally explained informed consent and that the study was voluntary, confidential, and that approval by a university Institutional Review Board was obtained. Hard copy informed consent documents were also provided to the cadets. The participants did not receive financial or other compensation for their involvement in the study. The participants were provided with hard copy assessment packets that they completed at the academy site, sealed in envelopes to protect privacy, and returned to the researchers. The researchers introduced the study and remained in the room while the cadets completed and returned the assessment packets. No academy staff or anyone else outside of the research team were present during any stages of this process. The researchers did not provide any type of mindfulness education, training, or interventions to the participants as the aim of the study was to assess dispositional and not state mindfulness.
Measures
The Five Factor Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ; Baer et al., 2006) was designed as a self-report assessment to measure dispositional mindfulness. The 15-item brief version of the FFMQ was used in the current study as it assesses five facets of mindfulness including: (1) non-reactivity, (2) observing, (3) describing, (4) acting with awareness, and (5) non-judging. Likert-type scales are used, and response options range from “Never or very rarely true” (scored 1) to “Very often or always true” (scored 5). Some items are reverse coded so that higher scores indicate greater levels of mindfulness. Only the 3-item non-judging subscale (FFMQ-NJ) was utilized in the current study (Cronbach’s alpha [α] and McDonald’s omega [ωt] = 0.82) with scores ranging from 3 to 15. The FFMQ has been reported to be a valid and reliable measure of mindfulness facets (Sung-Youi, 2015).
The PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5; Weathers et al., 2013a) is a measure of PTSD symptoms designed to be congruous with the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) involving the reexperiencing, avoidance, hyperarousal, and negative alterations in cognition and mood symptom clusters. A Likert-type scale is used for the 20 items on the PCL-5, which range from 0 (not at all) to 4 (extremely). Higher scores indicate elevated levels of PTSD symptoms. The current study utilized the full-scale score (α and ωt = 0.94), which is calculated by taking the sum of the 20 items and scores range from 0–80. The PCL-5 has been found to be a reliable and valid measure of PTSD symptoms (Blevins et al., 2015).
The World Assumption Questionnaire (WAQ; Kaler, 2009) is a self-report measure of worldviews rated from 1 (strongly agree) to 6 (strongly disagree) that has 22 total items, with possible scores ranging from 22 to 132. The WAQ measures items related to controllability of events, comprehensibility and predictability of people, trustworthiness and goodness of people, and safety and vulnerability. Several items on this assessment are reverse scored. The full-scale score was used in the current study (α and ωt = 0.80) and lower scores on the WAQ demonstrate more negative worldviews. The WAQ is reported to possess strong reliability and validity psychometric properties (Kaler, 2009).
Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996), our ultimate dependent variable, is a self-report assessment consisting of 21 items with scores ranging from 0 to 105 designed to measure positive and growth-oriented experiences in the aftermath of trauma exposure. The PTGI measures items involving personal strength, new possibilities, enhanced relationships, enhanced spirituality, and greater appreciation for life. Likert-type scales are used to measure PTG and range from 0 (I did not experience this change) to 5 (I experienced this change to a very great degree). Elevated scores translate into higher levels of PTG, with a range of 0 to 105. The full-scale score was used in the current study (α and ωt = 0.97). The PTGI is reported as a valid and reliable measure of PTG (Shakespeare-Finch et al., 2013).
The Adverse Childhood Experience questionnaire (ACE; Felitti et al., 1998) is a 10-item self-report assessment designed to measure abuse and neglect experienced throughout the first 18 years of life using yes or no response options. The No responses are coded as 0 and Yes responses are coded as 1. Possible scores range from 0 to 10. Higher scores indicate experiencing more reported childhood traumas. The ACE has been demonstrated to be a valid and reliable measure of stressful childhood experiences (Dobson et al., 2021).
The Life Events Checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5; Weathers et al., 2013b) contains 17 items and measures traumatic events experienced in one’s lifetime. Six response No/Yes options were provided for participants to select including Happened to me, Witnessed it, Learned about it, Part of my job, Not sure, and Doesn’t apply in order to assess the experiencing of various types of potentially traumatic events. For the current study, we use the response option Happened to me with scores ranging from 0 to 17 (life events to self). The LEC-5 is considered a valid and reliable measure of stressful life events (Weathers et al., 2013b).
Data Analyses
The sequencing of variables in a path analysis should be based primarily on theory but with room to consider the results of prior research (MacCallum & Austin, 2000). The authors of the current study contend that the placement of variables in our path model presented in Fig. 1 are the most appropriate considering theory, our discussion above, and past research (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Chopko et al., 2022; Frewen et al., 2011; Janoff-Bulman, 1992; Mitchell et al., 2017; Park et al., 2012; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). That is, the current model is mainly designed to test theory with less emphasis on being data-driven. We estimate our path model using IBM AMOS 28, including 95% confidence intervals using maximum likelihood and bootstrapping (Hayes, 2018). Given the relatively small sample size, the exploratory nature of the study, and the hypothesized mediation of mindfulness and world assumptions, we examine the associations among our variable using path analysis. This analytic strategy allows us to estimate both direct and indirect effects of trauma on PTG. We use the standard 0.05 level to establish statistical significance for the paths. We also use the standard criteria of 0.05 for the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) and 0.95 for the comparative fit index (CFI) to evaluate goodness of fit for our path model (Hu & Bentler, 1999).
Fig. 1
Adverse child events, negative life events, mindfulness-non-judging, posttraumatic stress disorder and world assumptions predicting posttraumatic growth among enforcement cadets
×
Results
Correlation coefficients between the various facets of mindfulness measured by the FFMQ (i.e., non-reactivity, acting with awareness, observing, describing, non-judging) and the variables (e.g., PTSD symptoms, PTG) in the current study have been conducted and are reported by Chopko et al. (2022). For instance, acting with awareness, describing, and non-judging were found to be negatively and significantly correlated with PTSD symptoms while observing was positively and significantly correlated with PTSD symptoms. Pertaining to PTG, non-judging and acting with awareness were negatively and significantly associated while observing was positively and significantly associated. Regarding the participants, about 66% had one or no Adverse Child Experiences (M = 1.53) and about 65% had 2 or fewer life events (M = 2.22). Mean scores for the key study variables are found in Table 1.
Our path analysis included several demographic factors that could influence the associations among our five key variables. The model estimated the covariance of these factors with each other (Table 2). As shown, women and older participants were more likely to report adverse child experiences compared to men and younger cadets. Older cadets were more likely to be married. Other than these few associations, our demographic factors were not statistically related to each other.
Table 2
Covariances between Demographic Variables Shown in Fig. 1
Variables
Estimate
SE
p-value
Age
< – >
Female
-0.01
0.08
0.92
Female
< – >
Adverse Child Events
0.04
0.01
0.00
Marital Status(married)
< – >
Education
-0.03
0.05
0.49
Adverse Child Events
< – >
Marital Status (married)
0.02
0.02
0.49
Age
< – >
Adverse Child Events
0.49
0.25
0.05
Adverse Child Events
< – >
Education
-0.07
0.08
0.38
Female
< – >
Married
-0.01
0.01
0.31
Female
< – >
Education
0.04
0.03
0.14
Age
< – >
Married
0.61
0.15
0.00
Age
< – >
Education
-0.50
0.52
0.34
S.E.—Standard Error
The direct effects for our path model are shown in Tables 3 and 4 and in Fig. 1. Examination of Table 3 and Fig. 1 indicates that age and ACE are positively related to life events (β = 0.20 and 0.24, p < 0.001, respectively). ACE are negatively related to mindful non-judging (β = -0.12, p < 0.05). Age (β = 0.11, p < 0.05), education (β = -0.14, p < 0.01), and non-judging (β = 2.20, p < 0.001) are positively associated with World Assumptions, while ACE are negatively related to this dependent variable. Both ACE (β = 0.14, p < 0.01) and life events (β = 0.22, p < 0.001) are positively related to PTSD, while non-judging (β = -0.35, p < 0.001) and World Assumptions (β = -0.17, p < 0.001) are negatively associated with PTSD. Finally, ACE (β = 0.11, p < 0.05) and PTSD (β = 0.12, p < 0.05) are positively associated with PTG. The path model has good fit statistics (CFI = 0.97; RMSEA = 0.05). However, the explained variance for mindful non-judging and PTG are quite low (R2 = 0.03 and 0.04, respectively), suggesting that other variables are needed in the model to help us better understand these concepts and their relationships to other variables.
Table 3
Unstandardized and standardized regression coefficients for path analysis assessing the relationships among demographics, stress, mental health, and posttraumatic growth (N = 349)
Summary of standardized total, direct, and indirect effects between negative life events, mindfulness—non-judging, PTSD, world assumptions and posttraumatic growth (n = 349)
Effect
Outcome
Determinant
Total
Direct
Indirect
Posttraumatic Growth
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
0.12*[0.04—0.21]
0.12*[0.04—0.21]
–––
World Assumptions 95% Confidence Interval
-0.04[-0.13—0.06]
-0.02[-0.12—0.08]
-0.02*[-0.04—-0.00]
Mindfulness-Non-Judging 95% Confidence Interval
-0.09†[-0.18—-0.01]
-0.04[-0.14—0.06]
-0.05*[-0.09—-0.02]
Negative Life Events
95% Confidence Interval
0.03*[0.01 – 0.06]
–––
0.03*[0.01 – 0.06]
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
World Assumptions 95% Confidence Interval
-0.17**[-0.26—-0.07]
-0.17**[-0.26—-0.07]
––
Mindfulness-Non-Judging 95% Confidence Interval
-0.38***
[-0.47—-0.28]
-0.35***[-0.43—-0.25]
-0.04**[-0.07—-0.01]
Negative Life Events 95% Confidence Interval
.24***
[0.13—0.34]
.22***[0.12—0.33]
0.01[-0.00—0.04]
PTSD = Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
†p < 0.10; * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001
Our final set of analyses investigated total, direct, and indirect effects of World Assumptions, mindful non-judging, and negative life events on Posttraumatic Growth via PTSD following suggestions from previous researchers (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Hayes, 2018; Preacher & Hayes, 2004). Our study hypothesis was that positive worldviews would mediate the relationship between pre-trauma non-judging and lower PTSD symptoms, ultimately leading to lower PTG. We conducted analyses to determine the extent to which PTSD mediated the relationships between World Assumptions, Life Events, and mindful non-judging. We also examined whether World Assumptions mediated the influence of Life Events and mindful non-judging variables on PTSD. The total, direct, and indirect effects for each analysis are presented in Table 4. The path model had good fit with CFI = 0.97 and RMSEA = 0.05.
As seen in the table, the influence of World Assumptions, mindful non-judging, and Life Events is indirect via PTSD (β = -0.02, -0.05, and 0.03, all p < 0.05). On the other hand, the influence of mindful non-judging and Life Events on PTSD is almost entirely direct. The indirect effects of these two variables on this dependent variable are relatively small or not significant. The indirect effect of non-judging is significant (β = -0.04, p < 0.01), but is relatively small compared to the direct effect (β = -0.35, p < 0.001). The indirect effect of Negative Life Events is not significant (β = 0.02, p > 0.05) suggesting that the influence of this variable on PTSD is entirely direct.
Discussion
This study involves the first attempt, of which the authors are aware, to use a causal modeling approach to examine the relationship between mindful non-judging, traumatic experiences, worldviews, and health outcomes. The study results support our hypothesis that positive worldviews mediate the relationship between pre-trauma mindful non-judging and both lower PTSD symptoms and lower PTG. That is, the path analysis conducted demonstrates not only the relationships between the study variables but also that the sequencing of variables in the model is statistically supported. These findings also support the notion that dispositional mindful non-judging serves as a protective factor that reduces the likelihood of developing increased PTSD symptoms following exposure to traumatic events, but at the cost of lower PTG. That is, the inclination towards mindful non-judging beginning early in life as a trait may make one more resilient to the impact of future traumatic experiences and less likely to develop negative health symptoms (but also less likely to develop PTG). Considering that the various facets of resiliency can be conceptualized as either a trait or a state (Maddi, 2013) and that certain traits (e.g., personality type) are thought to be protective factors against stress (Wong et al., 2018), dispositional mindful non-judging may be a protective trait regarding PTSD symptoms.
The concept that positive acceptance of change (e.g., believing that one has the ability to adapt to change) enhances resilience to stressful life events is found in the literature and is one of the facets assessed in resiliency measures (Connor & Davidson, 2003). This construct, however, is not synonymous with mindful non-judging. That is, mindful non-judging involves accepting one’s feelings, emotions, and thoughts without believing that they are bad, abnormal, or that they should not be experienced (Baer et al., 2006). Thus, conceptualization and assessment of resilience and mindfulness should be distinct and separate processes, as these variables should not be considered interchangeable. The findings of the current study support the theoretical underpinnings discussed above (i.e., shattered assumptions and cognitive worldview theories) that while traumatic experiences may shatter pre-existing worldviews, it is the cognitive appraisal and judgment regarding the extent to which the trauma violated pre-existing worldviews that contributes to greater PTSD symptoms. More precisely, those with greater propensity to mindfully accept the traumatic experience and their reactions to the trauma without judgment are less likely to ruminate on the worldview violations. As a result, greater PTSD symptoms do not develop. Because cognitive appraisal does not occur or is limited, previously held worldviews are not transformed into negative worldviews. These findings also support the mindfulness principle that reducing or being free of evaluative judgments facilitates acceptance of distressing experiences leading to lower stress symptoms (Brown & Ryan, 2003).
While ruminating about distressing events is thought to exacerbate mental health symptoms, it should be clarified that only certain forms of rumination are thought to lead to negative outcomes. For instance, emotional processing of distressing and traumatic events is well documented to lead to the lowering of symptoms and an increase in wellness (Rauch & Foa, 2006). Specifically, it is the degree of negative evaluative judgment accompanying thoughts about unpleasant experiences that is believed to differentiate healthy emotional processing from unhealthy and dysfunctional rumination. In other words, noticing distressing experiences and reactions is not the problem. Rather, it is the negative judgment and criticism of experiences such as developing trauma-related symptoms or blaming oneself for the occurrence of the traumatic event that leads to negative health outcomes (Rude et al., 2003). Mindful non-judging may prevent or reduce the development of unhealthy rumination that leads to distressing symptoms.
Negative evaluative judgments may result when one’s perceived performance is inconsistent with their personal standards, especially when combined with feelings of uncontrollability (Pyszczynski & Greenburg, 1987). Consider that making a mistake that leads to the death or serious injury of a fellow officer or bystander was reported by police officers to be the most severe traumatic event they could experience in the line of duty (Chopko et al., 2015; Weiss et al., 2010). Furthermore, thoughts of having low controllability of events were related to greater PTSD symptoms in a sample of police academy cadets (Chopko et al., 2022), and active-duty officers reporting beliefs that they have low controllability of events displayed greater PTSD symptoms (Green, 2017). Taken together, these studies indicate that negative self-evaluations of performance in the field and having thoughts of low controllability are related to actual, perceived, or anticipated distress in the police population. Even in cases where the cause of the traumatic event cannot objectively be attributed to one’s actions or inaction, survivors commonly blame themselves for the traumatic event. This maladaptive cognitive strategy, referred to as counterfactual rumination, has been demonstrated to exacerbate PTSD symptoms (Erwin et al., 2018). The possibility exists that mindful non-judging may prevent or reduce the development of negative self-evaluations and evaluations of controllability of events.
Guilt resulting from self-blame (and blaming others) regarding aspects of the trauma is thought to intensify various mental health symptoms (Cox et al., 2014; Pugh et al., 2015). For instance, rumination has been found to mediate the relationship between guilt and both increased PTSD symptoms and PTG (Wang et al., 2020). Cognitive appraisal theory (also referred to as cognitive evaluation theory) states that appraisal or evaluative judgement to both an event and one’s physiological reactions to the event shapes one’s emotional response (Schachter, 1964). Common issues that are evaluated according to this theory are how important the situation is to one’s well-being, one’s ability to deal with or adjust to the event, and who should be held accountable (i.e., self or others) for the harmful event. While the appraisals may be positive or negative, it is the negative evaluations that result in negative emotions (Lazarus, 1991; Smith & Kirby, 2000). Mindful non-judging may prevent negative rumination and evaluation which lead to self-blame, ultimately reducing perceived guilt and other health symptoms.
For example, judging the physiological PTSD symptoms (e.g., sleep problems, angry outbursts, hypervigilance; American Psychiatric Association, 2013) as negative may intensify the symptoms. Additionally, it is not uncommon for trauma survivors to blame themselves for the experiencing of PTSD symptoms (i.e., not limited to physiological). For instance, they may believe that they are experiencing the symptoms because of personal faults such as they are weak or are going “crazy,” especially in macho-oriented professions (Mittal et al., 2013). Thus, non-judgmental acceptance may inhibit the processes leading to negative beliefs such as blame and guilt and the resulting symptoms. The findings of the current study also support the theoretical model of PTG (as discussed above), which holds that the shattering of worldviews following the traumatic event leads to the development of new worldviews through a process of cognitive appraisal. Specifically, cognitive appraisal theory states that evaluative judgement to both an event and one’s physiological reactions to the event shapes one’s emotional response. Mindful non-judging may limit cognitive appraisal of not only the traumatic event but also physiological reactions to the event, inhibiting the development of greater PTSD symptoms. As a result, PTG also does not develop at higher levels.
The results of the current study have several implications. First, mental health professionals should consider assessing police employment applicants for dispositional mindful non-judging during the psychological assessment phase of the hiring process. Importantly, those with this trait may be more resilient to occupational trauma exposure regarding traumatic stress symptoms. Second, teaching cadets to develop and incorporate mindful non-judging (i.e., state mindfulness) may reduce the likelihood of developing negative worldviews and the resulting mental health symptoms. Third, clinical interventions could be developed for those in the police population prone to rumination and experiencing posttraumatic stress. Specifically, therapies and interventions should incorporate a component that instills cognitive appraisal skills that promote the development of positive worldviews and deter negative worldviews.
Fourth, for those cadets more trauma resilient due to mindful non-judging (and therefore less likely to develop PTG), the possibility exists that training and interventions can be developed to foster PTG. Even in cases where one does not develop substantial PTSD symptoms following exposure to potentially traumatic events, lessons that promote growth-oriented well-being may still be gained from those experiences. For instance, a systematic review of the PTG research literature involving first responders and other trauma-exposed professionals found that growth-oriented action was one of several factors that promoted PTG (Henson et al., 2021). Chopko et al. (2017) reported that active-duty law enforcement officers were prone to positive behavioral changes (i.e., behavioral PTG) that were facilitated by cognitive avoidance and not cognitive appraisal. Thus, cadets may be taught to make positive behavioral changes based on their work experiences that do not depend on the appraisal of worldview violations. Examples of behavioral PTG include putting effort into improving personal relationships, changing things which need changing, engaging in new interests, doing better things in life, taking advantage of new opportunities that otherwise wouldn’t have been available, and establishing a new path in life (Chopko et al., 2017; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004).
Limitations and Future Directions
Several limitations of the current study should be considered when interpreting the results. A sample of convenience was used that was largely homogenous (i.e., White, male) and may not be generalizable to other demographic populations. That is, the study findings may not be representative of more diverse samples in terms of race and sex. Path analysis is ultimately a correlational design that indicates the likelihood of pathways, which must be verified through future research utilizing other research (e.g., experimental) methods. Thus, causation has not been established. The participants were not assessed to determine if they had prior mindful non-judging training; as a result, it is not clear if this may have influenced the current study results. The police population may be hesitant to report mental health symptoms due to issues such as stigma, thus, underreporting is a possibility. As a result, the relationships between some of the study variables may be biased. The LEC-5 records only if a particular event has been experienced but not the frequency of exposure, thus, the results do not account for cumulative trauma exposure. The research participants displayed relatively low levels of PTSD symptoms, potentially impacting the sensitivity of the analyses performed to detect significant findings. That is, assessing a sample with high levels of PTSDS symptoms may produce differing results than those reported in the current study. Additionally, dispositional mindful non-judging may not be more fully developed until later in life, potentially limiting our understanding of this variable based on the current study results. The R2 for the study variables were somewhat low and should be considered when interpreting the statistically significant findings. Other variables need to be considered for the study’s model. For example, social support has been reported to be associated with dispositional mindfulness, PTSD symptoms, and PTG (Chen et al., 2021) and should be examined in future studies.
Recommendations for future research include longitudinal design studies designed to track the study variables over time. Specifically, obtaining a baseline measurement of the study variables with cadets prior to commencing the basic police academy training and reassessing at various points in time throughout their career is advised. Cumulative occupational trauma exposure including specific trauma types (e.g., events involving threat to self and the witnessing of harm to others) should be assessed in the follow-up phases. It is possible that variables such as worldviews and others may change as the participants encounter more traumatic and other work-related stressful events. Studies utilizing more diverse samples (e.g. race, sex) are also needed. In conclusion, the results of the current study support the contention that dispositional mindful nonjudging is a protective trait regarding trauma symptoms. Additionally, the results justify the need for additional research to understand the study variables more fully to promote health and well-being in the police population.
Declarations
Informed Consent
All study respondents provided informed consent to participate, per IRB approval.
Conflict of Interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest to report.
Ethics Statement
This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Kent State University.
Artificial Intelligence
AI was not used for editing the manuscript.
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