Psychological research on mindfulness has often focused on the effects of mindfulness training, such as clinical application, rather than on the meaning of mindfulness itself as taught in various spiritual, philosophical, and medical traditions. Mindfulness is often seen as a general training in attentional awareness. From a Buddhist perspective, this approach does not allow for the effective solution of deep-rooted problems arising from a deluded state of mind, which requires insight into the nature of mind. In order to apply the practice of mindfulness as a soteriological path, a precise understanding of the full range of functions of mindfulness and the judgmental mind is essential. To this end, this study explores the relevant definitions and levels of this practice in the context of Buddhist models of mind. This paper provides a profound analysis of early Indian Buddhist sources such as the Four Foundations of Mindfulness and later Tibetan Buddhist presentations, in particular those of the Kagyu lineage, such as the Distinction between Consciousness and Wisdom by the 3rd Karmapa Rangjung Dorje (1284–1339). Buddhist epistemology and meditation instructions offer various mind maps and discuss the steps in the process of perception, based on the application of mindfulness, to overcome deluded states of mind and develop highest wisdom. The theoretical and practical findings are intended to be helpful in integrating traditional Buddhist models of mindfulness and the judging mind, including issues of health and happiness, with our modern understanding of cognitive processes as described in applied psychology.
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Some of the oldest instructions on mindfulness training date back to early Buddhist sources. Here we find clear definitions and investigations of mindfulness taught in the context of the various functions of consciousness. There exist even mind maps that can be helpful to our modern understanding of cognitive processes. In addition, a variety of beneficial effects of developing mindfulness have been taught in ancient Indian or Greek philosophical and psychological traditions, as well as in later European phenomenology. Edmund Husserl (1859–1938), for example, opened the field when he described phenomenology as a science of consciousness, investigating “the dependent relationship between the real object and its essence, which is the perceptual experience” (Husserl, 1962, p. 155). Obviously, his understanding reaches beyond the general level of awareness or mindfulness associated with, for example, health and well-being. As much as we can develop a healthy kind of self-confidence regarding the Western approach to mindfulness, we must at the same time acknowledge that the full understanding of “consciousness” and “experience” requires the progressive development of clear awareness, or mindfulness, up to the realization of the nature of mind.
Buddhist teachings offer a wide variety of methods for transcending delusion, the judgmental function, or false beliefs based on the unawareness or fundamental ignorance that covers the nature of mind. To begin this process, a practitioner must develop an awareness or deep understanding that the mind is deluded at the conventional level, as in a dream, in which one believes that everything experienced is real until one wakes up. The Sanskrit term buddha translates as “the awakened one,” because he awoke from the sleep of ignorance. In the context of the Buddhist sūtras, the basic approach to this is the application of a well-functioning logic. The most profound instructions, however, relate to the tantric practices of identifying with buddha forms that symbolize the ultimate qualities of mind. Such qualities may include fearlessness, joy, compassion, and wisdom. Ultimately, through the Buddha’s teachings and the guidance of a qualified teacher, the practitioner learns to let the mind rest in its own nature and experience its perfect qualities.
Buddhist Definition and Main Source of Mindfulness
The common Buddhist definition of mindfulness is “Non-forgetting by the mind of the object being experienced” (Bodhi, 2011, pp. 22–23). The function of mindfulness is to maintain awareness of reality, especially with regard to the teachings that lead to liberation from suffering. In the sense of developing a clear memory, it is the antidote to forgetting the teachings. At a higher level, mindfulness is defined as a controlling faculty, a non-judgmental observation, a basic acceptance, and a present awareness (Anālayo, 2003, p. 61). In contrast to the general conceptual (Tibetan spros bcas) function of mindfulness, the awareness of simply observing events is a non-conceptual (Tibetan spros bral) state of mind. This non-judgmental, non-reflective, or even non-conceptual function of mindfulness requires an understanding of the judgmental mind. This is discussed in more detail below. Clear awareness or insight itself transcends any conceptually labeled world and allows a realization of the way things are.
From the perspective of Buddhist practice instructions, the antidote to basic unawareness is the development of mindfulness and deep insight into the nature of mind. The Buddhist literature of all Buddhist schools provides a clear and detailed account of the nature and practice of mindfulness (Sujato, 2011, for Tibetan sources see Buddhist Digital Resource Center, BDRC). The Theravāda (Pāli canon) and Mahāyāna (Sanskrit canon) traditions share a common source for developing the practice of mindfulness on the path: the Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness (Pali: Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta, Majjhima Nikāya 10, Sanskrit Smṛtyupasthāna Sūtra). Of particular note is the instruction provided in this work on the Four Foundations of Mindfulness, which relate to the body, feelings, mind, and phenomena (Anālayo, 2003).
General Buddhist Teachings on Mindfulness and the Judging Mind
When examining the topics of mindfulness and the judging mind in the context of general Buddhist teachings, it is common to begin with the basic exposition of the Four Noble Truths (Sanskrit catvāri āryasatyāni, Tibetan bden pa bzhi). This basic theme can also be translated as The Four Truths of the Noble Ones (Table 1), referring to those who are noble in that they have attained liberation from the cycle of rebirth. These Noble Ones have realized the truth in its four aspects of (1) the different kinds of suffering in the cycle of existence; (2) the origin of suffering, which is basic ignorance, conceptual, emotional, and karmic obscurations; (3) the cessation of suffering at the two levels of liberation and full enlightenment; and (4) the Eightfold Path of the Noble Ones, which leads to the end of suffering or lasting happiness.
Table 1
The judgmental mind in the context of the four noble truths
Four Noble Truths
Truth of Suffering
Truth of the Origin of Suffering
Truth of the Cessation of Suffering
Truth of the Path Ending the Suffering
Definition
Different kinds of suffering in the cycle of rebirth
Fundamental ignorance or unawareness
Lasting happiness
The Eightfold Path of the Noble Ones
All-pervasive suffering
Conceptual obscurations, the judgmental mind
Liberation from suffering in the cycle of rebirth
Viewpoint
Description
Suffering of change
Emotional obscurations, attachment, aversion, etc
Arhat state or bodhisattva levels
Conduct
Suffering of suffering
Karmic obscurations, negative actions
Full enlightenment of a buddha
Meditation
Having taught the first truth as various kinds of suffering in the realms of cyclic existence, the historical Buddha explained the root cause of all problems as fundamental ignorance or unawareness, which belongs to the second truth related to the origin of suffering. This leads to conceptual obscurations, the judging function of the mind. This in turn creates emotional obscurations such as attachment and aversion, which are responsible for negative actions, also called karmic obscurations. Thus, the judgmental mind arises from a lack of mindfulness.
To provide an example of this function, let us imagine that someone is criticizing us. Instead of just staying with the facts and understanding the words as an opportunity to learn or even improve, we might take them personally, judge them as an insult to us, and react with a negative emotion towards the person. This in turn leads to negative actions such as harsh words. Since the judgmental mind always follows the strongest habitual pattern, the solution would be to become more mindful of this process of cause and effect and use the space available to change the habits. After having trained mindfulness, at least through a regular meditation practice, the undesirable mental states can be recognized very early, just as they are arising. By applying an appropriate antidote or even not investing any energy in them, we can avoid being overwhelmed by these states. This allows them to dissolve completely over time.
The third truth concerning the cessation of suffering comprises two levels, liberation and enlightenment. The Theravāda tradition speaks of the arhat state for both, while the Mahāyāna distinguishes between liberation, which corresponds to the first bodhisattva level, nine further bodhisattva levels, and buddhahood. With regard to the cause and effect of liberation, it is necessary to overcome suffering and its causes. Here, conceptual obscurations mistakenly perceive the person as a truly existing unity, when in fact the person is made up of mind and body. In the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination (Reat, 1993, p. 43; Konchog Gyaltsen, 1998, p. 226), mind and body are called “name and form” as the fourth link, when the consciousness connects with the genetic material of the parents. These can be further divided into five constituents or aggregates (Sanskrit pañcaskandha, Tibetan phung po lnga) (Table 2). Full realization of a person’s true nature corresponds to liberation from the cycle of existence. With regard to the cause of full enlightenment, it is necessary to understand that the conceptual obscurations mistakenly perceive the outer world as truly or independently existent, when in fact the outer world is empty of independent existence. The full realization of the true nature of phenomena corresponds to the enlightenment of a buddha.
Table 2
The five constituents of a person (Tibetan terms in brackets)
Form and name
Constituents
Components
Body and matter
Form (gzugs)
Shape and color
Mind
Feelings (tshor ba)
Pleasant, unpleasant, neutral
Discrimination (’du shes)
Small, extensive, immeasurable
Mental formations or mental events (’du byed)
Positive, negative, changing
Consciousness (rnam shes)
Store consciousness (sems or kun gzhi)
Afflicted consciousness (yid or nyon mongs)
6 sense consciousnesses (rnam shes drug)
The fourth truth provides the details that make up the path, which leads to the cessation of suffering. The liberating training consists of the eight stages of (1) right understanding, (2) right thinking, (3) right speech, (4) right action, (5) right livelihood, (6) right effort, (7) right mindfulness, and (8) right concentration. In this context, “right mindfulness” represents the seventh stage of the Eightfold Path of the Noble Ones. It is also the first of the so-called Seven Factors of Awakening or Enlightenment which are (1) mindfulness, (2) examination, (3) effort, (4) joy, (5) flexibility, (6) concentration, and (7) equanimity. In addition, the “Four Foundations of Mindfulness” can be closely related to the “Four Noble Truths” (Table 1), the “Five Constituents” (Table 2), and the “Four Seals of the Buddha’s Teachings” (Table 3).
Table 3
The Four Foundations of Mindfulness in context
1. The Four Foundations of Mindfulness
The Four Noble Truths
The Five Aggregates
The Four Seals of the Buddha's Teachings
Mindfulness of the body
(Sanskrit kāya)
Truth of suffering
Form
Everything conditioned is impermanent
Mindfulness of feelings
(Sanskrit vedanā)
Truth of the origin of suffering
Feelings
Everything impure is suffering
Mindfulness of the mind
(Sanskrit citta)
Truth of the cessation of suffering
Consciousness
Only nirvāṇa is peace
Mindfulness of phenomena
(Sanskrit dharma)
Truth of the path leading to the end of suffering
Mental events
including
discrimination
All phenomena are empty and selfless
The Four Foundations of Mindfulness (Brahmavamso, 1997) include the following training: first, in terms of the body, mindfulness observes the breath, postures, movements, repulsive aspects, material elements, imagination as a skeleton, etc.; second, in terms of feeling, mindfulness observes the pleasant, unpleasant and neutral, internal and external feelings, etc.; third, in terms of mind or consciousness, mindfulness observes various states, such as obscured, unobscured, conceptual or non-conceptual states, distracted or concentrated states, internal or external states, etc.; fourth, in terms of phenomena or mental objects, mindfulness observes sense perception, mental states such as agitation or doubt, internal and external objects, and the arising or dissolving of mental objects (Schmithausen, 1976).
The Indian master Śāntideva, in Chapter 5 of his famous work Bodhicaryāvatāra (Shantideva, 1979, pp. 37‒56), contrasted mindfulness (Sanskrit smṛiti, Tibetan dran pa) with alertness (Sanskrit sṃaprajanya, Tibetan shes bzhin) by dedicating an entire chapter to these functions of the mind. In this context (p. 41, Footnote 14, p. 194), mindfulness is defined as “to be mindful of all that one has accepted to relinquish and cultivate.” The definition of alertness on the same page is “to be skilfull in applying oneself to this relinquishment and cultivation.” It means “to constantly examine the state of body, speech, and mind” (Verse 108, p. 56).
The Judging Mind Within the Functions of Consciousness
Based on these explanations of the practice of mindfulness in the classical Buddhist teachings, we continue with a more detailed examination of the judging mind. As outlined above, the non-conceptual function of mindfulness requires an understanding of the conceptual or judging mind. In this regard, the 3rd Karmapa Rangjung Dorje (Rang-byung-rdo-rje) (1284–1339), a scholar and meditation master of the Kagyu (bKaʼ-brgyud) tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, stated “The cause of the cycle of existence is having concepts of the mind.” The Tibetan in Rang byung rdo rje gsung’bum, Volume 5, p. 286.5‒6 (Rang-byung-rdo-rje & 3rd Karmapa, 2006a) reads: sems kyi kun rtog bcas pa’i’khor ba’i rgyu ||. This statement should be understood in the context of his teachings on The Distinction Between Consciousness and Wisdom (Tibetan rNam shes ye shes byed pa’i bstan bcos, short: rNam shes ye shes, Rang-byung-rdo-rje & 3rd Karmapa, 2006c) (Tables 4 and 5). Here, consciousness signifies the deluded state of mind, called “the cycle of existence,” while wisdom signifies the mind free from delusion. This is manifested at the two levels of liberation from the cycle of existence and full enlightenment of a buddha.
Table 4
The Eight Aspects of Consciousness or Perception According to the Mahāyāna
Category
Enumeration
Function (Names in Engl.; Tib.; Skt.)
rNam shes:
The six perceiving consciousnesses
(rnam shes drug)
1st sense:
Eye perception
(mig gi rnam par shes pa; caksur vijñāna)
2nd sense:
Ear perception
(rna ba’i rnam par shes pa; srotra vijñāna)
3rd sense:
Nose perception
(sna’i rnam par shes pa; ghrana vijñāna)
4th sense:
Tongue perception
(lce’i rnam par shes pa; jihva vijñāna)
5th sense:
Body perception
(lus kyi rnam par shes pa; kāya vijñāna)
6th sense (mental):
(yid kyi rnam par shes pa; manovijñāna)
Mental perception: non-conceptual
(spros bral)
Mental perception: conceptual (spros bcas)
Yid: 7th afflicted consciousness
(nyon mongs pa’i yid kyi rnam par shes pa; klista mano vijñāna)
Instantaneous or immediate mind
(de ma thag pa’i yid)
Afflicted mind
(nyon mongs can gyi yid)
Sems: 8th store or all-base (ground) consciousness
(kun gzhi rnam par shes pa; ālāyavijñāna)
Basic mind stream
Table 5
Distinguishing consciousness (perception) from wisdom (Gnōsis) According to the 3rd Karmapa
Consciousness
Function
Samādhi
Wisdom (Gnōsis)
Cause
Buddha state
1st–5th sense
consciousnesses
(rnam shes)
Sense-perception
Path of seeing
All-accomplishing
Activities for all sentient beings
nirmanakāya
emanation state
6th mental consciousness
Intellect, judging mind
Outer
Inner
Illusion-like
Discriminating
Understanding and teaching dharma
sambhogakāya
joy state
7th afflictive consciousness
(yid)
Immediate consciousness, ego-illusion
Heroic
Equality
Realization of the equality of minds
8th store consciousness
(sems)
Base, tendencies
vajra-like
Mirror-like
Realization of the Three Baskets
dharmakāya truth state
The presentations of the functions of consciousness vary according to Theravāda and some Mahāyāna schools. For example, the lower Abhidharma treatises (Mejor, 1991; Śāstri, 1970) assert six aspects or functions, five sense consciousnesses, and the mental consciousness, including the judging function. Most Mahāyāna teachings, such as those given in the higher Abhidharma works (Pradhan, 1950), divide consciousness into eight aspects or functions. In this context, mental consciousness is further divided into the afflicted aspect, which is responsible for the ego illusion, and the store or all-base consciousness, also called the “basic mind stream.” It stores the karmic seeds and later lets them ripen according to the law of cause and effect.
In this paper, the discussion is mainly based on the teachings given in the Kagyu lineage with a special focus on the 3rd Karmapa Rangjung Dorje. However, in the context of previous research on the functions of consciousness and its transformation into wisdom or awareness, different perspectives have been applied. For example, Ronald Epstein has authored an article on this subject as taught in Chinese Buddhism (Epstein, 1985): The Transformation of Consciousness into Wisdom in the Chinese Consciousness-only School. As a cornerstone of classical rNying-ma exegesis in Tibetan Buddhism, the sems-ye shes distinction, as the topic is called in this lineage, plays a central role. For example, David Higgins wrote his doctoral dissertation on the rDzog chen (Great Perfection) view of this topic (Higgins, 2012).
From the perspective of the Kagyu lineage, Michael R. Sheehy authored an essay entitled Rangjung Dorje’s Variegations of Mind, Ordinary Awareness and Pristine Awareness in Tibetan Buddhist Literature (Sheehy, 2006). He discussed this topic in the context of applied psychology. Kagyu master Thrangu Rinpoche provided extensive teachings on the functions of mind, based on the rNam shes ye shes of the 3rd Karmapa (Thrangu, 2001; Thrangu & Roberts, 2001). His teachings were published under the title Transcending Ego: Distinguishing Consciousness from Wisdom. In the following sections, I present a summary of my own research on this topic, which is discussed in greater detail in my doctoral dissertation (Seegers, 2018).
Table 4 provides an overview of the elaborate Mahāyāna teachings on the functions of consciousness in relation to the respective senses and the inner functions of the mind, as also applied by the 3rd Karmapa in the Kagyu tradition of Tibetan Buddhism.
If we examine more closely what is meant by “consciousness” (also called “perception”) and “wisdom” (also called “gnosis”), in Buddhism, consciousness is defined as a state of mind directed towards an object, as can be read in the Rigs gzhung rgya mtsho by the 7th Karmapa Chos-grags-rgya-mtsho (1454‒1506), (1985, volume 1, p. 262). When consciousness is focused on an internal or external object, it excludes everything else. It is therefore a limited state of mind deluded about its own nature. Only after a complete change of state, or purification, has taken place does the basic unawareness associated with consciousness change its state to wisdom. The 3rd Karmapa Rangjung Dorje in his famous work Profound Inner Meaning (Zab mo nang don, Rang-byung-rdo-rje & 3rd Karmapa, 2006d) provides a clear analysis of how consciousness misperceives reality:
That very [mind] which is ignorant of itself
Is moved by the mental formation.
From this movement, which resembles waves on water
Appears the duality of object and perceiver.
The Tibetan lines in Rang byung rdo rje gsung ʼbum, Volume 7, p. 311.1‒2, read:
de nyid rang gis rang ma rig ||
ʼdu byed yid kyis g.yo ba ni ||
chu rlabs lta bur g.yos pa las ||
don dang ʼdzin pa gnyis snang bas ||
This important quotation needs to be set into context. The movement of the basic mind stream (Tibetan sems), also called “all-base” or “store consciousness” (Tibetan kun gzhi’i rnam shes), gives rise to the afflicted mind (Tibetan nyon yid). This is responsible for the dualistic division into subject (self) and object (other). The separation between mental cognition and mental objects gives rise to false concepts (Tibetan spros bcas) and disturbing feelings (Tibetan nyon mongs). This includes the conceptual labeling and evaluation of external objects through the senses. Sense perceptions operate on the basis of the sense faculties and the perceived objects. All sense impressions are immediately stored in the store consciousness. The ripening of these impressions later manifests as the karmic results of previous actions with body, speech, and mind. In Verse 34 of the rNam shes ye shes, the 3rd Karmapa presents a solution to the problem:
That which overcomes the impure concepts
Is the power of the higher knowledge of the “noble ones”
Arisen from pure concepts.
To hold onto this has been taught as the truth of the path.
The Tibetan in the rNam shes ye shes, Verse 34, reads:
ma dag kun rtog ’joms byed pa ||
dag pa’i kun rtog las skyes pa’i ||
’phags pa’i shes rab dbang po ni ||
’dzin pa lam gyi bden par gsungs ||
Here, the higher knowledge (Tibetan shes rab) of the “noble ones” corresponds to a high level of mindfulness or awareness. This has the power to overcome the impure concepts or the judgmental function of the mind.
Mind Map Providing an Overview of Mental Functions
In his aforementioned treatise rNam shes ye shes, the 3rd Karmapa presents the various functions of consciousness and their purified aspects of wisdom, which can be summarized in a complex mind map (Table 5). He explains the basis of purification, the eight aspects of consciousness, the various states of meditation (Sanskrit samādhi) that function as means of purification, the developed aspects of wisdom including their direct causes such as various realizations and activities, and their respective goals, the pure buddha states, including the benefit of sentient beings. These are the results of purification.
To the pure buddha states, the essential state (Sanskrit svabhāvikakāya) could be added as a summary, which corresponds to the dharmadhātu wisdom. The benefit of sentient beings can be further divided into the benefit of oneself related to the dharmakāya and the benefit of others related to the sambhogakāya and the nirmanakāya. The various meditation states develop progressively on the bodhisattva levels by means of the Buddhist practice of concentration and insight. They change the state of consciousness into wisdom. The expression “change of state” here refers to the fact that the pure essence of consciousness is already wisdom. Each wisdom has a corresponding cause for its full manifestation, listed in Table 5.
Within the framework of the eight aspects of consciousness, the conceptual function of consciousness, the judgmental mind, belongs to the 6th and 7th aspects of consciousness. The outward-facing facet of the intellect or the judging mind, the 6th aspect of consciousness, conceptualizes the external objects of the senses as truly existing and having certain fixed characteristics. The inward-facing facet of the intellect, turning towards the 7th aspect of consciousness, misconstrues the nature of the mind as a truly existing subject or ego, the perceiver of the world. The dualistic split between subject and object is the root cause of all problems in the cycle of existence.
In his commentary on the Dharmadhātustava, short title Chos dbyings bstod paʼi rnam bshad (Rang-byung-rdo-rje & 3rd Karmapa, 2006b), the 3rd Karmapa Rangjung Dorje summarized these functions of the distinction between consciousness and wisdom as follows:
What moves everywhere [in the cycle of existence] is the mental continuum (Tibetan sems), the fundamental mind (Sanskrit ālayavijñāna), which is completely imbued with all the seeds of the habitual tendencies of psycho-physical constituents (Sanskrit skandhas), elements (Sanskrit dhātus), and sense sources (Sanskrit āyatanas). After the very nature [of this fundamental mind] has been completely purified by means of the Buddha’s teachings, which is the result of completely non-conceptual gnōsis, this nature becomes progressively pure and [ultimately] is called “non-abiding nirvāṇa.” This very nature is also the truth state (Sanskrit dharmakāya) of all buddhas.
The Tibetan lines in Rang byung rdo rje’i gsung’bum, Volume 7, p. 6.1–3, read:
gang zhig gang du ’khor ba ni | sems phung po dang | khams dang | skye mched kyi bag chags thams cad kyi yongs su bsgos pas sa bon thams cad pa’i kun gzhi’i rnam par shes pa’o | de nyid rnam par mi rtog pa’i ye shes kyi rgyu mthun pa’i sangs rgyas kyi chos kyis rnam par sbyangs pa las | rim gyis dag par gyur pa de nyid la mi gnas pa’i mya ngan las ’das pa zhes bya ste | sangs rgyas thams cad kyi chos kyi sku yang de nyid yin no ||.
She-rab Rin-chen (2006), a close disciple of the 3rd Karmapa (fourteenth century), explains this process in condensed form in his commentary on the Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness also called The Sūtra of the Close Application of Mindfulness
Alas! Sentient beings in the three realms
Conceptualize as ego what does not exist as ego.
And they apprehend as objects what does not exist as “other.”
They do not realize the arising from false conceptualizations.
The Tibetan lines in Dran pa nyer bzhag’grel, (Rang byung rdo rje gsung’bum, Volume 6, pp. 566.5–567.2) read:
kye ma khams gsum sems can rnams ||
nga med nga ru rtog pa dang ||
gzhan med yul du ’dzin pa gang ||
yang dag ma yin kun rtog las ||
byung ba rtogs par ma gyur to ||
The Causes and Conditions of the Cognitive Process
A closer examination of the 6th consciousness, especially the judgmental mind, reveals that one cause and three conditions must be present for this process to function (Fig. 1): (1) The causal condition is the basic mind stream or store consciousness. (2) The object condition is the perceived object. Depending on the presence of an object, the sensory impression of the object is non-conceptually transmitted to the mental consciousness. (3) The predominant condition refers to the sense faculties, including the mental faculty. Its function is to perceive the images of external objects through the senses and to develop concepts. It is called “predominant,” because each sense faculty perceives exclusively its respective objects. (4) The immediate condition is the connecting power between the different moments of cognition, their ability to arise and cease, and the dynamic quality of the mind stream. The immediate condition is also responsible for the immediate storage of the impressions in the store consciousness. Later, the stored impressions come to the surface, again transported by the immediate mind, and manifest in the external world. This process is similar to storing data on the hard drive of a computer and later recalling them on the screen.
Fig. 1
The four conditions of the cognitive process
×
The Judgmental Mind in Buddhist Epistemology
The Buddhist theory of cognition or epistemology (Sanskrit pramāṇa, Tibetan tshad ma) explains very precisely the process of perception, including the judgmental function (Table 6). The main theme of the theory of cognition is the distinction between deluded and non-deluded states of mind. A state of mind free from delusion called “direct, clear cognition” (Tibetan mngon sum tshad ma) must be non-conceptual (always fresh) and free from other mistakes (such as false sense perceptions). According to the Tibetan master Sakya Paṇḍita Kunga Gyaltsen (1182–1251) in his Tshad ma rigs gter (1988, pp. 43–85), the following four steps or moments in this process have to be distinguished:
(1)
The first step is described as the meeting of the actual concrete or specifically characterized object of perception with the perceiving consciousness on the basis of the respective sense faculty. This is a non-conceptual sense perception. Of course, each perception has its individual object. For example, the eye consciousness perceives only form and color, etc. (Wangchuk, 2009).
(2)
The second step or moment in this process is the mental perception. Since the mental perception is behind each sense perception, the information coming from the senses is passed on to the sixth consciousness. The connecting function of the mental perception perceives the sense objects non-conceptually, as before.
(3)
The third step or moment in this process is the conceptual mental perception. It labels the perceived object and, as mentioned above, projects certain fixed characteristics onto the object. These can be all kinds of abstractions or generalizations, such as groups or categories. In this way, the actual concrete object (Tibetan rang mtshan) is no longer experienced, but only an abstraction of the object (Tibetan spyi mtshan) or a generally characterized object. This appears as an image in the mind.
(4)
In the fourth step or moment, the mental image or abstraction of the object is finally mixed with the actual concrete object and they are believed to be identical. In fact, the concrete object is always beyond expression. For example, it never says: “I am a red table and I look beautiful.” Even though all conceptual characteristics are projected onto the concrete object and are only abstract ideas, we think that our judgments correspond to the reality of what we perceive. This is the fundamental error of the deluded mind. The following table provides an overview of this process.
Table 6
Consecutive moments in the process of cognition
Moment
Perceptions
Object
First
Non-conceptual sense-perception
Concrete or specifically characterized object
Second
Non-conceptual mental perception
Concrete or specifically characterized object
Third
Conceptual mental perception
Abstract or generally characterized object
Fourth
Mixing the mental image with the perceived object
Projection onto the object of interaction
The 3rd Karmapa describes the basic delusion of conceptual cognition in one of his songs (the collection of songs is titled mgur’bum):
Absolute truth is not the field of experience of the intellect.
The intellect is taught to be relative truth.
The essence of the apprehending subject and the objects of knowledge
Is inconceivable by the concepts of good and bad.
Different from the intellect of the cycle of existence
Is the perfect gnōsis (wisdom), which has not arisen by nature.
The Tibetan lines in Rang byung rdo rje gsung’bum, Volume 5, pp. 200.2–201.3, read:
don dam blo’i spyod yul min ||
blo ni kun rdzob yin par bshad ||
’dzin dang shes bya ngo bo nyid ||
bzang ngan rnam rtog bsam yas pa ||
’khor ba’i blo’i khyad par las ||
ma byung rang bzhin ye shes rdzogs ||.
The expression of conceptual cognition is language. As a specific approach, Buddhist epistemology offers a thorough analysis of language. Language is seen as a process of mental abstraction in relation to its actual content, where concrete objects are labeled by language. In this context, language is referred to as “means of expression” (Tibetan rjod byed), while its contents are referred to as “objects of expression” (Tibetan brjod bya). For example, the 7th Karmapa’s Rigs gzhung rgya mtsho (Volume 2, mngon sum leʼu, pp. 26‒131, as well as Volume 4, rjes dpag gi leʼu, pp. 3–18; 79–81) offers a clear presentation of the distinction between mental abstractions and concrete objects. This Buddhist concept of language has already been compared with the analysis of modern European linguistics, e.g., in Eva Ottmer’s doctoral dissertation (Ottmer, 2003). The full realization of direct clear cognition corresponds to the change of state of the intellect into the perfect wisdom of a buddha.
Limitations and Future Research
This research supports ongoing debates about a variety of explanatory models of mindfulness and the judging mind in comparison to Buddhist models. Naturally, this can only be an outline of the different levels of mindfulness as taught in Buddhist traditions, especially in the Kagyu school. A detailed discussion of the current state of psychological research in this area would merit another article, as it extends far beyond the Buddhist context. This is also entirely open to future research. For example, whether or not the common divisions made by Western psychology, namely those of conscious, subconscious, and unconscious functions of the mind, correspond to the first through sixth, seventh, and eighth aspects of consciousness, is very controversial in academic circles dealing with these topics. There are profound arguments for supporting and refuting this theory. Another aspect is the specific Buddhist terminology in this field, which actually requires further studies based on the sources listed in the References section.
For an effective application of mindfulness, the definition and actual purpose should be completely clear. In this regard, we could speak of a more general level, discussed above from the Buddhist point of view under the heading of “General Buddhist Teachings on Mindfulness and the Judging Mind.” They correspond to some extent to non-traditional approaches that aim, for example, to increase health and well-being or improve functioning in psychological, biological, behavioral, and social contexts. And there would be very subtle levels of mindfulness or awareness, culminating in deep insight into the nature of phenomena, corresponding for the most part to traditional approaches. They have been discussed above from the perspective of the Kagyu lineage with a special focus on the conceptual and non-conceptual functions of mindfulness. As a result, we might speak of a series of progressive levels of mindfulness that serve a variety of functions and purposes. An understanding of these progressive levels of mindfulness or awareness is certainly helpful in integrating our modern understanding of cognitive processes with traditional accounts of mindfulness and the judging mind.
Even in general contexts, the practice of mindfulness can involve different levels. For example, it can be applied as an increasing attention to the events of the present moment and gradually accepting the entire field of awareness. This would definitely help to reduce many problems that arise from a lack of mindfulness. Such training can be done regardless of spiritual, religious, or cultural beliefs. However, once the goal is liberation from suffering, including the causes of suffering such as deluded states of mind, or even the full awakening from the sleep of ignorance, only those approaches that provide a path leading to these results are applicable.
The maximum result to be achieved depends on the view of the true nature of phenomena and the methods available to achieve that result. The research presented here makes it clear that the traditional Buddhist approach to the practice of mindfulness, together with deep insight, aims to end all suffering at its root by completely overcoming its causes along the way. This requires training in the various levels of mindfulness or awareness. In Buddhism, it means the progressive development of stable concentration and deep insight through various methods. Even the tantric instructions on the generation stage and the completion stage within Tibetan Buddhism follow this basic pattern. The principal function of the generation stage is to calm down and concentrate the mind, while the principal function of the completion or dissolving stage is to develop insight into the nature of mind based on the cultivation of mindfulness.
The judging mind operates at a very subtle level of obscuring states of mind. It conceptualizes external or internal phenomena and holds its own judgments as always true. This becomes the cause of all problems because it creates attachment and aversion and is based on a fundamental ignorance of the true nature of phenomena. The development of mindfulness or awareness—in Buddhism through a regular meditation practice—creates the space to change the deep-rooted habits. Thus, from the gross to the subtle levels of defilements, working with the mind enables the removal of all obscuring states of mind. At the same time, the perfect qualities that belong to the nature of mind emerge, up to the manifestation of the highest level of awareness, the wisdom of a buddha.
Declarations
Conflict of Interest
The author declares no competing interests.
Ethics Approval
The manuscript does not contain any studies with human participants.
Use of Artificial Intelligence
The author did not use any AI tools for writing this manuscript.
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