Work-Family Conflict and Second-Child Fertility Intention in Chinese Dual-Earner Families: Moderated Mediation Model of Parental Burnout and Grandparent Support
This study empirically investigated the mechanisms underlying work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict’s effect on second-child fertility intention by focusing on parental burnout and grandparent support. A sample of 1072 Chinese respondents who had already had one child were surveyed. The results of the two-wave longitudinal study showed that both work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict exerted a significant negative effect on second-child fertility intention. Mediation path analysis revealed that both independent variables had significant positive effects on parental burnout, while parental burnout exhibited significant negative effects on the dependent variable. Subsequently, our study confirmed that parental burnout served as a mediating variable between work-to-family conflict, family-to-work conflict, and second-child fertility intention. Furthermore, grandparent support moderated only the direct positive effect of work-to-family conflict on parental burnout and the indirect effect of work-to-family conflict on second-child fertility intention via parental burnout. Thus, the indirect effect of work-to-family conflict on second-child fertility intention is weakened when grandparent support is high. The study offers implications that mitigating the negative effects of family-to-work conflict on second-child fertility intention require support not only from the micro-ecosystem of the family, but also from the meso- and macro-ecosystems, such as organizations and society.
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China has undergone a dramatic fertility decline in recent years, largely due to the implementation of the one-child policy that has lasted 50 years (Zeng & Hesketh, 2016). To increase the fertility rate, China implemented a new family planning law in 2013 that allows married couples to have two children if either of them is the only child of their parents. Two years after its implementation, the conditional two-child policy was replaced by a comprehensive two-child policy, which permits all married couples to have two children. Although the total fertility rate rose briefly to 1.6 in 2017, the number had declined to 1.3 by 2020 (He et al., 2019; National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2021; National Bureau of Statistics, 2023). This seems to reveal that the current family planning policy has played only a limited role in raising fertility rates. Given the pressure this “lowest-low” fertility rate places on national pensions, healthcare systems, and technological development, it is necessary to explore factors beyond policy that influence couples’ decisions on whether to have a second child.
Many Chinese researchers have indicated that the main constraints on parents choosing to have a second child are financial and parenting pressures, which come from the work and family domains, respectively (Liu & Zhang, 2021). Work-family conflict is defined as “a form of inter-role conflict in which the pressure from the work and family domains are mutually noncompatible in some respect.” (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985) This definition of work-family conflict clearly describes a bidirectional conceptualization. That is, work-related problems and demands can interfere with family (work-to-family conflict) and family related problems and demands can interfere with work (family-to-work conflict). Typically, when a couple chooses to have a second child, they are highly likely to face dual conflicts of work-to-family and family-to-work, especially in dual-earner households in China. However, existing studies exploring the impact of work-family conflict on fertility intentions rarely distinguish between the two directions of work-family conflict, and seldom simultaneously examine the weight of both directions’ effects. Consequently, it is difficult to clarify the relative impact of work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict on fertility intentions, making it challenging to propose targeted improvement strategies.
A review of work-family conflict reported that since the work-family conflict construct was introduced, a large body of literature has examined and confirmed its negative consequences for individuals, families, and organizations (Byron, 2005). One of the most concerning consequences is burnout. A meta-analytic study showed a relatively strong correlation between work-family conflict and job burnout (r = 0.42) (Allen et al., 2000). Moreover, with the global prevalence of parental burnout—an outcome of long-term stress related to parenting—there is an urgent need for more researchers to explore the relationship between work-family conflict and burnout in the family domain (Mikolajczak et al., 2019). According to the balance between risks and resources (BR2) theory, parenting demands simultaneously influence both parental burnout and job burnout. This theory is an important theoretical guide for understanding how parental burnout occurs. BR2 theory posits that parental burnout occurs because parenting demands (risk factors) far outweigh parenting resources (protection factors) and parents are unable to access resources to meet these demands over long periods of time (Mikolajczak & Roskam, 2018).
We hypothesize that work-family conflict, as a significant common factor of job burnout, also exerts an important influence on parental burnout (Mikolajczak & Roskam, 2018). Recently, Chinese researchers have indicated that parental burnout negatively affects Chinese couples’ intention to have a second child (Fu et al., 2023). Therefore, it can be further inferred that the negative impact of work-family conflict on parental burnout is likely to influence couples’ decisions to have more children.
Although work-family conflict may affect working parents’ parenting and fertility intention, not all working parents who experience parental burnout have lower fertility intention. Thus, testing what influences may moderate the relationship between work-family conflict, parental burnout, and fertility intention is useful. Consistent with conservation of resources (COR) theory, grandparent support is a high-quality resource that can help working couples alleviate the stress of conflicting roles and can also reduce the negative impact of parenting-related risk factors. Over the past 32 years, COR theory has developed into a generally cited stress theory that helps explain why stress occurs in certain situations and how people respond to stressful situations (Hobfoll et al., 2000). Proposed as a theory of motivation, COR assumes that individuals are committed to constantly acquiring resources, protecting those resources, and preventing their loss. Resources can be defined in this context as anything that individuals believe will help them achieve a goal (Hobfoll et al., 2000).
Because of the influence of Confucian values, it is common for grandparents provide childcare for their children in China. The report Family Development in China showed that 41.1% of grandparents are the primary caregivers of children aged 1–5 years (Department of Population Surveillance and Family Development, 2015). Grandparent support is a valuable resource that assists couples in managing their family affairs and that prevents and counterbalances resource loss. Therefore, it is necessary to examine the role of grandparent support in the relationship between work-to-family conflict, family-to-work conflict, parental burnout, and second-child fertility intention These research findings will not only clarify the different effects of grandparent support on the influence pathways of the two independent variables but also provide guidance for interventions aimed at reducing parental burnout and increasing fertility intention.
With these arguments in mind, the purpose of this study is to simultaneously examine and compare the magnitude of effects of work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict on second-child fertility intention, analyze the mediating role of parental burnout, and investigate the moderating effect of grandparent support in these mediated relationships, grounded in COR and BR2 theory. These findings not only help to solve the problem of low fertility in China, but also can provide strategies for other countries with high work-family conflict and low fertility (e.g., South Korea).
Literature Review and Hypothesis Development
Work-to-Family Conflict, Family-to-Work Conflict, and Second-Child Fertility Intention
Fertility intention is the first step in the fertility decision-making process, reflecting couples’ willingness to expand their family size; it plays an essential role in explaining the fertility rate (Testa, 2014; Zhou & Guo, 2020). However, China’s two-child policy has had limited effect in boosting couples’ intentions to have a second child. There is an urgent need to better understand the factors beyond policy that encourage or discourage couples’ second-child fertility intention. Although few studies have verified the association between work-to-family conflict, family-to-work conflict, and second-child fertility intention, some have pointed out that dual-earner couples do not have sufficient time and energy to raise their children (Danner‐Vlaardingerbroek et al., 2013; Silver, 2000). According to COR theory, when individuals are under pressure to work, they invest more resources, mental and physical, in prevent job loss, which potentially reduces the investment of resources in the family. Ayllón (2019) examined the extent to which job insecurity caused by the Great Recession affected fertility decisions across Europe and identified the fear of job loss and the strain of long-term unemployment as key indicators of reduced fertility. A recent meta-analysis of employment instability and fertility showed that job instability has a non-negligible negative impact on fertility and that this has increased over time (Alderotti et al., 2021). Owoo and Lambon-Quayefio (2021) have indicated that career-oriented women self-select into more secure and higher-paying jobs and have fewer children to avoid losing their jobs. In addition, studies from a variety of cultures have proved that childcare and household chores negatively affect parents labor force participation (Lee & Lee, 2014; Viitanen, 2005). Work-family conflict has a significant impact on whether parents, especially those in dual-earner families, have more children.
Mediating Effect of Parental Burnout
There is no denying that parenting is one of the most exhausting tasks. When parents are chronically stressed, overwhelmed, and do not have the resources to manage stress, they may experience parental burnout. Parental burnout is defined as “a state of intense exhaustion related to one’s parental role, in which one becomes emotionally detached from one’s children and doubtful of one’s capacity to be a good parent” (Roskam et al., 2017). The notion of parental burnout has gained widespread attention for two reasons. First, recent studies have pointed out that parental burnout can have severe consequences on parents and children. For example, parental burnout is more likely to lead to parents’ suicidal ideation and avoidance behavior than job burnout or depression (Mikolajczak et al., 2018). In addition, parental burnout can lead to neglect of or violence toward children (Yang et al., 2021). Second, parental burnout is a common concern for scholars not because of the severity of its consequences but because of its prevalence. Roskam et al. (2018) showed that 5.9% of parents (n = 901) experienced parental burnout. Roskam et al. (2021) recent study of 17,409 parents from 42 countries demonstrated that the prevalence of parental burnout varies globally, ranging from 1 to 10%. Wang et al. (2022) noted in an empirical article that the prevalence of parental burnout among Chinese parents was as high as 9.71%.
Given the harm and prevalence of parental burnout, researchers have focused on exploring its antecedents (Mikolajczak et al., 2019; Sorkkila & Aunola, 2020). According to the BR2 theory, there are two types of risk factors for parental stress: common and specific risk factors. Work is the most important domain for the individual apart from family, and work-family conflict, a common risk factor, is a symptom of a failure to balance the resources of the two domains. There is evidence that work-family conflict is associated with parental psychopathology symptoms (Moreira et al., 2019), greater parenting stress (Allen et al., 2019), and less parenting satisfaction (Shreffler et al., 2011). Therefore, we hypothesize that both work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict will have significant effects on parental burnout.
Parental burnout is likely to be a salient negative factor (β = −0.022, p < 0.05) affecting fertility intention (Fu et al., 2023). A literature review study showed that many burn-out parents exhibited escape ideation and quit their parental role (Mikolajczak et al., 2018). Vigouroux and Scola (2018) examined the influence of several key sociodemographic factors on parental burnout and reported that the total number of children and number of children living at home were positively correlated with parental burnout. Some researchers have also pointed out that certain demographic variables (e.g., number of children) have a minor impact on parental burnout, while other demographic variables (e.g., blended family) do not have any significant effect on parental burnout (Mikolajczak et al., 2023). Therefore, it is worth re-examining whether parents would reduce childbearing in order to alleviate or avoid experiencing parental burnout. Simultaneously, Brenning et al. (2024) pointed out that work-family conflict and parental burnout are two important aspects of parental functioning that often co-occur, confirming the correlation between the two factors. Chinese researchers have also confirmed that work-family conflict positively predicts parental burnout through a survey of 634 parents of preschool children (Wang et al., 2024). Some researchers have indicated that parenting stress plays a mediating role between work-family conflict and mindful parenting (Moreira et al., 2019). Based on the aforementioned research findings, it is plausible that parental burnout may mediate the relationship between work-family conflict and second-child fertility intentions. Though we infer no causal relationship, we argue that work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict are primary influences on parenting, leading to parental burnout, which is then transformed effects fertility intention and decision making.
Moderating Role of Grandparent Support
Many grandparents are involved in their grandchildren’s lives and provide different types of support (e.g., emotional, practical, and financial support) (Huo et al., 2018). The Migrant Population Service Center of China (2016) reported a migrant population of to 247 million, with older people accounting for 5.3% of this population. Based on extensive interviews, Qi (2018) found that an increasing number of Chinese grandparents have joined the migrant population to provide childcare for their adult children. Both COR and BR2 theory view grandparent support as a high-quality resource that helps alleviate working couples’ stress concerning conflicting roles and reduces the negative impact of parenting-related risk factors. Blanch and Aluja (2012) demonstrated that in Spain, family support, including grandparent support and other relatives, reduces parenting stress by alleviating parents’ work-family conflict. Ciabattari (2007) examined work-family conflict among low-income unmarried mothers and found those who lived with grandparents received childcare assistance, which eased the work-family conflict. Mikolajczak and Roskam’s (2020) review of the mechanisms of parental burnout indicated that mothers with parental support have a reduced likelihood of parental burnout. Exploring the role of grandparents, Botcheva and Feldman (2004) found that grandparent support moderated the relationship between economic stress and harsh parenting so that families with supportive grandparents experienced fewer negative effects.
From the perspective of the overall model structure, we posit that grandparent support may function as a protective resource, potentially mitigating the adverse effects of both work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict to varying degrees. This hypothesis may offer an explanation for the observed phenomenon wherein certain dual-earner couples appear to be less affected by work-family conflict, do not experience excessive parental burnout, and consequently maintain a willingness to have additional children. Therefore, we argue that the effects of work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict on parental burnout might be buffered by different levels of grandparent support. Parents who receive higher levels of grandparent support are less likely to experience the negative effects of work-family conflict.
We propose a moderated mediation model (Fig. 1). According to COR and BR2 theory, work-family conflict has a serious negative impact on dual-earner parents’ work and family. Because more resources are devoted to conflict resolution, parents who experience higher levels of work-family conflict are also at risk of parental burnout, which may force parents to have fewer children in order to alleviate or even prevent parental burnout. Fortunately, high-level grandparent support provides working parents with protective resources to balance work and family relations, diminishing parental stress and increasing the likelihood of having another child. Using longitudinal data from three generations, Kaptijn et al. (2010) showed that couples who regularly receive childcare support from grandparents are more likely to have more children. From the above discussion, we contend that grandparent support moderates the indirect effect of work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict on second-child fertility intention via parental burnout. However, work-family conflict encompasses two directions, namely work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict. Existing research has not confirmed whether the moderating effects of grandparent support on conflicts in both directions and fertility intentions are consistent, and we speculate that the moderating effects of grandparent support on different pathways may vary. Therefore, to clarify the differences in the moderating effects of grandparent support on these two pathways, it is necessary to provide separate hypotheses.
Fig. 1
Proposed model
×
The Study’s Hypotheses
H1a: work-to-family conflict is negatively related to second-child fertility intention.
H1b: family-to-work conflict is negatively related to second-child fertility intention.
H2a: work-to-family conflict is positively related to parental burnout.
H2b: family-to-work conflict is positively related to parental burnout.
H3a: parental burnout acts as a mediator between work-to-family conflict and second-child fertility intention.
H3b: parental burnout acts as a mediator between family-to-work conflict and second-child fertility intention.
H4a: grandparent support moderates the negative effect of work-to-family conflict on parental burnout, such that the effect of work-to-family conflict on parental burnout is lower for parents who receive higher levels of grandparent support.
H4b: grandparent support moderates the negative effect of family-to-work conflict on parental burnout, such that the effect of family-to-work conflict on parental burnout is lower for parents who receive higher levels of grandparent support.
H5a: Grandparent support moderates the mediating effect of parental burnout on the relationship between work-to-family conflict and second-child fertility intention, such that the indirect effect of work-to-family conflict on second-child fertility intention via parental burnout is stronger for dual-earner families with low-level grandparent support than for those with high-level grandparent support.
H5b: Grandparent support moderates the mediating effect of parental burnout on the relationship between family-to-work conflict and second-child fertility intention, such that the indirect effect of family-to-work conflict on second-child fertility intention via parental burnout is stronger for dual-earner families with low-level grandparent support than for those with high-level grandparent support.
Method
Participants and Data Collection
An ethics approval of the research was granted by the Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC), Xi’an Jiaotong University prior to data collection. We surveyed dual-career families with one child in six Chinese cities in 2020 and 2021. The Center of Health Supervision National Commission of the China conducted a survey of more than 5.8 million couples who only had one child. We found that 95% of their first children were under 15. Therefore, the “parents of children currently in kindergarten, elementary school, and junior high school” were selected as respondents in this study.
To select respondents, the survey employed a multistage random sampling procedure based on levels of region, city, school, grade, and class. We selected six cities of different types (different economic development levels, population sizes, and social cultures) from different regions (eastern, central, and western) as a good representation of the different regions of China (Table 1).
Table 1
Surveyed cities
Eastern region
Central region
Western region
Cities
Fujian Xiamen
Hunan Changsha
Shaanxi Xian
Counties
Zhuhai Jinwan
Shanxi yuci
Shaanxi Sanyuan
We sampled at least about 100 preschool children (aged 3–6 years), 200 elementary school students (aged 6–12 years), and 100 junior high school students (aged 13–16 years) in each city and county. We sent the questionnaires to the head teachers, who sent them to the internet class groups via WeChat and QQ (the two most popular applications for information exchange in China). Because the internet class group only allowed one father or mother of each student to enter the group, the approximately 2332 questionnaires collected were independent questionnaires, not couple-level questionnaires. Before the survey began, the participants were asked to consent to participate in the survey.
At Time-1, the two independent variables (work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict), moderator outcome (grandparent support), and demographic variables were measured. The primary questionnaires employed in this study included Netemeyer et al.’s work-family conflict scale and the Grandparent support scale. We received a total of 2332 questionnaires, and after excluded those in non-dual-earner families (e.g., households with stay-at-home mothers) and those who already had two or more children, 2215 questionnaires were usable, with a validity rate of 95%.
A six-month delay was considered appropriate for a work-family conflict study (Matthews et al., 2014). Consequently, approximately six months later, we distributed the second questionnaire following a protocol similar to that of the first questionnaire. Specifically, the questionnaires were sent to head teachers, who then disseminated them through internet class groups. Parents who had participated in the initial survey were invited to complete the second questionnaire. Ultimately, received 2015 valid questionnaires with a validity rate of 91%, giving an overall response rate of 87% for both periods.
At Time-2, the mediator (parental burnout) and outcome (second-child fertility intention) were measured. The primary questionnaires employed at this time point included Roskam et al.’s parental burnout scale and Chin-Ching et al.’s Fertility Intention Scale. To mitigate the risk of omissions, we conducted a secondary screening to identify any remaining respondents from non-dual-earner families or families with two or more children. These cases were subsequently eliminated from the dataset. The resultant sample used consisted of 1072 respondents. They came from different socioeconomic and sociocultural backgrounds. Specifically, approximately 50.2% were male and 49.8% were female. Further, 70.7% of the respondents had urban hukou (household registration system in China), and 30.3% had rural hukou. The majority of the respondents (95%) were between the ages of 20 and 49 with a minority over 50.
Measures
This study uses scales that have been validated in previous research to measure major variables. The scales were translated and back-translated with the help of three researchers in related fields, and minor revisions were made to make the scales applicable to Chinese culture. A 5-point Likert response scale was used to score work-to-family conflict, family-to-work conflict, grandparent support, and second-child fertility intention with 1 = “strongly disagree” and 5 = “strongly agree”. parental burnout had anchors of 1 = “never” and 7 = “daily.”
Work-to-Family Conflict
Netemeyer et al. (1996) scale was used to measure Chinese dual-earner families’ work-to-family conflict. This scale consists of five items. One sample item is “My job is very stressful, and it is difficult to fulfill family duties.” In this study, the alpha value of the Chinese version was 0.91, which indicates that it is as reliable and effective as the Chinese version.
Family-to-Work Conflict
In order to test the family-to-work conflict experienced by dual-earner families in China, we also used the five items scale developed by Netemeyer et al. (1996). One sample item is “family-related strain interferes with my ability to perform job-related duties.” In this study, Cronbach’s α score was 0.90.
Parental Burnout
Roskam et al. (2018) developed a parental burnout assessment for a 40-country study of the prevalence of parental burnout, thereby establishing a new standard for evaluating parental burnout on a global scale. In this study, parental burnout was measured using the Chinese version of the parental burnout assessment scale (Cheng et al., 2020), which is a 23-item scale with sum scores ranging from 0 to 138. Responses scales were rated on a 7-point Likert scale: never (0), a few times a year or less (1), once a month or less (2), a few times a month (3), once a week (4), a few times a week (5), every day (6). This scale has been verified and has shown good reliability in 42 countries (Roskam et al., 2021). In this study, Cronbach’s α for the scale was 0.94, and a higher score indicated a higher level of parental burnout.
Grandparent Support
Scales for measuring grandparent support are very rare, and because of the influence of Confucian culture, Chinese grandparents’ support differs from that of other countries. We measure Chinese grandparents’ support from three dimensions: financial, practical, and emotional. One sample item is “Do your parents assist in caring for your children?” Each dimension consists of three items, with responses collected using a five-point Likert scale. Prior to implementing the instrument, we conducted a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). The CFA results indicate that all items effectively measure grandparental support levels (χ2/df = 1.839, NFI = 0.931, TLI = 0.958, CFI = 0.899, GFI = 0.949, RMSEA = 0.072). In this study, the Cronbach’s alpha of the scale was 0.92; a higher score indicated greater grandparent support.
Second-child Fertility Intention
This paper uses an adapted version of the Fertility Intention Scale to collect data on the intention to have a second child (Chin-Ching et al., 2018). The scale contains 5-items (e.g. Do you intend to have a second child in the following years?) and each item was scored using a 5-point Likert scale, with higher scale scores means greater second child fertility intention. In this study, the Cronbach’s alpha of the scale was 0.89.
Control Variables
Spector and Brannick (2011) stated that the effect of demographic variables on work-family conflict is not significant and does not need to be controlled for. However, the hukou system, gender1, and subjective family financial status (SFFS) are major contributing factors to social inequality and differences in China. Jiang et al. (2016) demonstrated a significant relationship between the gender of the first child and couples’ decisions to have a second child. Some previous studies have confirmed that these variables correlate with work-family conflict. Therefore, we controlled for these variables in our model. The hukou system and gender were measured as dichotomous dummy variables coded as 1 for rural and male and 2 for urban and female. SFFS ranged from “very poor” (1) to “very rich”(5).
Data Analysis Procedure
For preliminary analyses, Harman’s single factor test was adopted to assess if the database was prone to a common method bias, and all variables studied were analyzed using Stata 15.0 software. Confirmatory factor analysis was performed to estimate the discriminant validity of all key variables. We analyzed the descriptive statistics and correlations among the variables using Stata version 15.0. Next, we used AMOS software to perform Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and employed multiple regression and bootstrap methods to test the direct and indirect relationships between variables. Specifically, first, we constructed Models 7 and 8 to test H1a and H1b. Second, to test the mediation relationships (H2a, H2b, H3a, and H3b), we constructed Models 2, 3, 10, and 12. Third, to test the moderation relationships (H4a and H4b), we executed Models 4 and 5. Finally, we verified the moderated mediation through Models 11, 13, and Table 5, which confirmed H5a and rejected H5b. Furthermore, to present the significant moderating effects more intuitively, we plotted simple slopes for different levels of grandparent support.
Results
Common Method Bias Tests
As the data in this study were self-reported, common method bias was a problem. We minimized this by strengthening procedural designs before collecting data, (e.g., using different scale formats, counterbalancing the order of the questions, and anonymous answering). To test whether the data were prone to common method bias, Harman’s single-factor test was applied. All variables studied were analyzed using Stata 15.0 software for exploratory factor analysis. The results showed that no single factor accounted for most of the variance, and the first factor accounted for 25.24% of the overall variance, which is less than the threshold of 50% for a severe common method bias; this indicates that it was not a threat (Podsakoff et al., 2012).
Confirmatory Factor Analysis
To evaluate the discriminant validity of work-to-family conflict, family-to-work conflict, parental burnout, second-child fertility intention, and grandparent support, we conducted discriminant validity via confirmatory factor analysis using Amos 20.0. Specifically, the goodness-of-fit statistics were evaluated using such indicators as the comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), normed fit index (NFI), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). The results showed that the five-factor model had the best degree of fitness (χ2 = 1014.07, χ2/df = 2.142, CFI = 0.931, TLI = 0.920, NFI = 0.958, RMSEA = 0.052), showing that the five constructs have good discriminant validity (Table 2).
The means, standard deviations, and correlations of all selected variables in the sample are presented in Table 3. There were more subjects from urban areas, the number of males and females was basically equal, and the gender distribution of the first child was also similar. In terms of SFFS, the proportion of working parents at the moderate level was approximately 94%, and the proportions were similar for very poor parents and very rich parents (3.31% versus 5.47%). Pearson correlations showed that work-to-family conflict was significantly and positively correlated with family-to-work conflict and negatively correlated with second-child fertility intention. Family-to-work conflict also showed a negative correlation with second-child fertility intention. In addition, there was a positive correlation between work-to-family conflict and parental burnout and between family-to-work conflict and parental burnout. Finally, grandparent support was significantly negatively correlated with work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict, but second-child fertility intention was positively correlated with grandparent support.
Table 3
Descriptive statistics and correlations between study variables
M
SD
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1.Hukou
1.71
0.79
1
2.Gender
1.49
0.50
0.01
1
3.FBG
1.51
0.49
−0.10
0.02
1
4.SFFS
2.83
0.57
0.14***
0.02
−0.09
1
5.WFC
8.84
2.19
−0.06***
−0.15***
−0.12*
−0.13***
1
6.FWC
10.75
2.44
−0.12***
0.03*
−0.12*
−0.34***
0.12***
1
7.GS
54.85
38.41
0.40***
0.02
−0.17**
0.33***
−0.16***
−0.23***
1
8.PB
38.21
27.78
−0.04**
0.03
−0.21*
−0.07***
0.16***
0.13***
−0.05***
1
9.SCFI
3.36
1.01
0.06***
−0.02
0.10*
0.06***
−0.14***
−0.12***
0.10***
−0.16***
1
N = 1072; Gender is code as 1=male, 2=female. FBG is coded as 1=male, 2=female. Hukou is coded as 1=rural, 2=urban. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001 (two-tailed)
WFC Work-to-family, FWC Family-to-work Conflict, FBG First Born Gender, PB Parental Burnout, GS Grandparent Support, SCFI Second-child Fertility Intention
Hypotheses Testing
This study used a multiple regression model to test the mediation and moderated mediation models, and reports the results in the order of the proposed hypotheses (Tables 4 and 5).
Table 4
Mediation model outcome
Variables
Mediation model outcome: Parental Burnout
M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
Hukou
−0.031*
−0.022
−0.020
−0.017
−0.017
Gender
0.031*
0.055*
0.026
0.025
0.025
FBG
−0.020*
−0.017*
−0.014
−0.011
−0.012
SFFS
−0.066**
−0.046*
−0.028
−0.027*
−0.025
WFC
0.165***
0.154***
FWC
0.120***
0.116***
GS
−0.026*
−0.013
WFC*GS
0.040**
FWC*GS
0.005
PB
R2
0.007
0.034
0.022
0.029
0.019
∆R2
0.007
0.027
0.015
0.022
0.012
F
12.21
45.37
26.93
55.78
34.90
N = 1072; Standardized coefficients are reported. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001 (two-tailed)
M Model, FBG First Born Gender, WFC Work-to-family, FWC Family-to-work Conflict, PB Parental Burnout, GS Grandparent Support, SCFI Second-child Fertility Intention
Table 5
Results of multiple regression analysis
Variables
Second-child Fertility Intention
M6
M7
M8
M9
M10
M11
M12
M13
Hukou
0.136*
0.119*
0.117*
0.124*
0.114*
0.056
0.105*
0.042
Gender
−0.099
−0.195*
−0.082
−0.076
−0.160*
−0.158*
−0.060
−0.075
FBG
−0.057*
−0.052
−0.049
−0.056*
−0.066
−0.043
−0.039
−0.041
SFFS
0.223*
0.166*
0.102
0.185*
0.146*
0.077
0.087
0.023
WFC
−0.144***
−0.125***
−0.116***
FWC
−0.090***
−0.077***
−0.075***
GS
0.003***
−0.003*
WFC*GS
−0.001***
FWC*GS
−0.002
PB
−0.013***
−0.012***
−0.012***
−0.013***
−0.013***
R2
0.006
0.023
0.014
0.026
0.037
0.042
0.032
0.036
∆R2
0.006
0.015
0.008
0.020
0.031
0.036
0.026
0.030
F
41.17
145.76
91.42
179.05
252.77
283.29
214.07
235.64
N = 1072; Standardized coefficients are reported. * p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001 (two-tailed)
M Model, FBG First Born Gender, WFC Work-to-family, FWC Family-to-work Conflict, PB Parental Burnout, GS Grandparent Support, SCFI Second-child Fertility Intention
Testing the Direct Relationship Between Work-to-family Conflict, Family-to-work Conflict and Second-Child Fertility Intention
To test H1a (work-to-family conflict is negatively related to second-child fertility intention), we added work-to-family conflict as the only independent variable to Model 7 (Table 5), and the results (β = −0.144, p < 0.001) indicated a significant negative relationship between work-to-family conflict and second-child fertility intention, supporting H1a. Similarly, the effect of family-to-work conflict on dual-earner parents’ second-child fertility intention was negative and significant from Model 8 (β = −0.090, p < 0.001) (Table 5), supporting H1b.
Testing the Mediation
To test the mediating role of parental burnout, we first examined the direct relationships between work-to-family conflict, family-to-work conflict, and parental burnout. Then, we tested the mediation effects.
In Models 1–5, the dependent variable is parental burnout (Table 4). To test H2a (work-to-family conflict is positively related to parental burnout) and H2b (family-to-work conflict is positively related to parental burnout), work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict were entered as independent variables (Models 2 and 3). The results suggest that both work-to-family conflict (β = 0.165, p < 0.001) and family-to-work conflict (β = 0.120, p < 0.001) were positively and significantly related to parental burnout. Thus, H2a and H2b are supported.
To test H3a (parental burnout acts as a mediator between work-to-family conflict and second-child fertility intention), we followed the procedures developed by Baron and Kenny (1986). We first examined the direct effect of work-to-family conflict on second-child fertility intention. The results of Model 7 demonstrate that the two variables were significantly related (Table 5). Second, we examined the effect of work-to-family conflict on parental burnout. The results of Model 2 confirm that work-to-family conflict had a significantly positive effect on parental burnout. Third, we tested the effect of parental burnout on second-child fertility intention, and the results of Model 9 show that there was a significantly negative relationship between these variables (β = −0.013, p < 0.001). However, when both work-to-family conflict and parental burnout were included in the regression analysis, the results of Model 10 indicated that work-to-family conflict still had a negative effect on second-child fertility intention (β = −0.125, p < 0.001), which suggests that parental burnout partially mediated the association between work-to-family conflict and second-child fertility intention. According to the results of 5000 iterations of bootstrap resampling, the indirect effect of work-to-family conflict on second-child fertility intention via parental burnout was (β = 0.005, 95%CI = [−0.007, −0.004]). Thus, H3a is supported. Similarly, following the steps mentioned above, when both family-to-work conflict and parental burnout were entered into the regression analysis, the results of Model 12 showed that there was still a negative association between family-to-work conflict and second-child fertility intention, which suggests that parental burnout partially mediated the association between family-to-work conflict and second-child fertility intention. The indirect effect of family-to-work conflict on second-child fertility intention via parental burnout was (β = 0.004, 95%CI = [−0.005, −0.003]). Thus, H3b is supported.
Testing the Moderation
To test H4a (grandparent support moderates the negative effect of work-to-family conflict on parental burnout), we used a moderated regression analysis. First, we mean-centered work-to-family conflict and grandparent support before generating their interaction term to minimize multicollinearity. Model 4 shows that the interaction between work-to-family conflict and grandparent support was positively related to parental burnout (β = 0.040, p < 0.01) (Table 4). To understand the moderating effect more visually, we performed a simple slope analysis following Aiken et al. (1991). When the moderating effect of grandparent support on the relationship between work-to-family conflict and parental burnout was plotted (Fig. 2), it was found that work-to-family conflict was more positively correlated with parental burnout in the case of low parental burnout than when grandparent support was high. It is worth noting that as the level of work-to-family conflict increases, the moderating effect of grandparent support weakens. Specifically, when dual-earner families face high levels of work-to-family conflict, families with high levels of grandparent support still experience lower levels of parental burnout compared to families with low levels of grandparent support, but the gap between them narrows. Therefore, H4a is supported.
Fig. 2
Interactive effects of work-to-family conflict and grandparent support on parental burnout
×
To test H4b (grandparent support moderates the negative effect of family-to-work conflict on parental burnout), we performed Model 5(Table 4). From Model 5, we can see that the interaction between family-to-work conflict and grandparent support was not significantly related to parental burnout (β = 0.005, p > 0.05). Thus, H4b was not supported.
Testing the Moderated Mediation
To test H5a (Grandparent support moderates the mediating effect of parental burnout on the relationship between work-to-family conflict and second-child fertility intention, such that the indirect effect of work-to-family conflict on second-child fertility intention via parental burnout is stronger for dual-earner families with low-level grandparent support than for those with high-level grandparent support.), we constructed Model 11 and created Fig. 3.
Fig. 3
Interactive effects of work-to-family conflict and grandparent support on second-child fertility intention
×
Model 11 shows that the interaction between work-to-family conflict and grandparent support was negatively related to second-child fertility intention (β = −0.001, p < 0.001). Figure 3 shows that the relationship between work-to-family conflict and second-child fertility intention was significantly negative and strong when grandparent support was low and weak when grandparent support was high. To further understand the moderated mediation effects of work-to-family conflict on fertility, we tested the conditional indirect effects of work-to-family conflict on second-child fertility intention at two values of grandparent support, −1 SD below the mean (−38), and +1 SD above the mean (38) (Table 6). The indirect negative effects of work-to-family conflict via parental burnout were weaker for high grandparent support (β = −0.007, 95%CI = [−0.009, −0.004]) but stronger for low grandparent support (β = −0.002, 95%CI = [−0.003, −0.001]), which suggests that the magnitude of the mediating effect of parental burnout on the relationship between work-to-family conflict and second-child fertility intention varied by different levels of grandparent support; thus, H5a is supported.
Table 6
Results of conditional indirect effects
Bootstrapping
BC 95% CI
Path
Moderator
Indirect Effect
SE
Lower limit
Upper limit
WFC→PB→SCFI
Low-level GS(–1 SD)
−0.002(−0.012)**
0.002(0.008)
−0.003(−0.019)
−0.001(−0.005)
High-level GS( + 1 SD)
−0.007(−0.032)**
0.006(0.027)
−0.009(−0.042)
−0.004(−0.022)
FWC→PB→SCFI
Low-level GS(–1 SD)
−0.002(−0.012)
0.002(0.007)
−0.006(−0.034)
0.002(0.009)
High-level GS( + 1 SD)
−0.004(−0.020)
0.008(0.016)
−0.012(−0.062)
0.005(0.023)
** p < 0.01 (two-tailed). “→”refers to the path of effect from one variable to another. Unstandardized(standardized) regression coefficients are reported
In addition, the interaction between family-to-work conflict and grandparent support was not significantly related to second-child fertility intention. Thus, H5b was not supported.
Discussion
We created a moderated mediation model, guided by COR and BR2 theory, to examine the underlying mechanism of the effect of work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict on second-child fertility intention among Chinese dual-earner families. We proposed five sets of hypotheses to investigate the relationship between work-to-family conflict, family-to-work conflict, parental burnout, grandparent support, and second-child fertility intention.
The first set concerned the direct effects of work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict on second-child fertility intention. The results of the study indicated that work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict had a significant negative effect on second-child fertility intention. In addition, the effect of work-to-family conflict on second-child fertility intention outweighed that of family-to-work conflict.
The second set of hypotheses examined the direct effects of work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict on parental burnout, respectively. The findings revealed that both work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict exerted significant negative effects on parental burnout, with higher levels of bidirectional conflicts leading to more severe parental burnout among dual-earner parents. Moreover, compared to family-to-work conflict, work-to-family conflict demonstrated a stronger impact on parental burnout.
The third set of hypotheses concerns the mediation effects of parental burnout on the link between work-to-family conflict, family-to-work conflict, and second-child fertility intention. One of the main findings of the study showed that parental burnout plays a key mediating role in the relationship between work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict on second-child fertility intention. Based on Allen et al. (2000) meta-analytic evidence demonstrating the significant impact of work-family conflict on job burnout, and considering that job burnout and parental burnout represent domain-specific exhaustion in work and family contexts respectively, we examined job burnout as an alternative mediator. Results indicated that while both work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict exhibited significant positive effects on job burnout, no significant association emerged between job burnout and second-child fertility intention. This suggests that job burnout does not serve as a mediating variable in the relationships between bidirectional conflicts and second-child fertility intention, thereby underscoring the distinctiveness of our research findings2.
The fourth set of hypotheses tested the moderation effects of grandparent support on the relationships between bidirectional conflicts and parental burnout. Findings indicated that the positive association between work-to-family conflict and parental burnout was stronger under conditions of low grandparent support compared to high grandparent support. However, grandparent support did not demonstrate a moderating effect on the relationship between family-to-work conflict and parental burnout.
The final set tested the moderated mediation effect, specifically examining the moderating effect of grandparent support on the mediation effects of parental burnout on the relationship between work-to-family conflict, family-to-work conflict, and second-child fertility intention. Our findings suggest that the positive relationship between work-to-family conflict and parental burnout is weaker for parents with a high level of grandparent support. Moreover, the indirect effect of work-to-family conflict on second-child fertility intention through parental burnout varied significantly according to the different levels of grandparent support. However, the moderation effect did not significantly differ in the association between family-to-work conflict and parental burnout. Moreover, we did not find a moderated mediation effect between family-to-work conflict and second-child fertility intention.
Theoretical Implications
Both work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict have made particular contributions to the decline in second-child fertility intention. This conclusion echoes Molina’s (2021) comments regarding the future of work-family conflict literature, as the experience of becoming a parent is a major topic for work-family conflict.
Second, this study investigated the mediating role of parental burnout in the relationship between work-family conflict and fertility intentions. As Shaukat et al. (2017) suggest, there are underlying psychological mechanisms in the relationship between conflict and individual behavior. Previous research has confirmed the mediating role of job burnout in the relationship between work-family conflict and work-related behavior (Raja et al., 2018). This research not only reveals the possible mechanisms by which work-family conflict (both work-to-family and family-to-work) affects second-child fertility intention through parental burnout in dual-earner families, but it also provides suggestions for further research. In addition, our study contributes to the literature on parental burnout. This study answers the call of the founders of parental burnout by strengthening studies of the function of the mediating role of parental burnout, providing a new perspective on its importance to family related behaviors and attitudes (Mikolajczak et al., 2023).
Third, this study confirms that grandparent support helps to buffer the negative relationship between work-to-family conflict and second-child fertility intention but does not mitigate the effect of family-to-work conflict on second-child fertility intention. This conclusion responds to the call of Nilsen et al. (2017), who treated work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict separately. Theoretically, these findings contribute to understanding why it is preferable to differentiate between work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict. Specifically, work-to-family conflict occurs when work-related problems and demands interfere with family life, thus more likely to affect family outcomes. In contrast, family-to-work conflict arises when family-related problems and demands interfere with work, consequently more likely to impact work outcomes. As demonstrated in our findings, work-to-family conflict exerts a stronger negative effect on parental burnout compared to family-to-work conflict. Therefore, differentiating the directionality of work-family conflict helps better explore the underlying mechanisms through which work-family conflict operates and enables more targeted intervention strategies. For instance, our moderated mediation model reveals that grandparent support only moderates the negative effects in the work-to-family conflict pathway. This suggests that mitigating the indirect effects of family-to-work conflict on second-child fertility intention may require drawing resources from the work domain.
Practical Implications
This study not only has important practical implications for demographers and policy makers, especially those concerned with fertility, but also offers strategies for some countries that also have low fertility in conflict with high working families (e.g., South Korea). First, by empirically testing the major factors contributing to the decline in fertility intentions, we found that for dual-earner parents, alleviating inter-role conflict between family and work domains is an effective way to increase second-child fertility intention. Specifically, increasing the flexibility of people’s engagement with work and family through more flexible working hours and more flexible institutional childcare would improve the compatibility between the needs of the two domains (Borgmann et al., 2019).
Second, the we provide important empirical evidence of how work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict may affect dual-earner couples’ second-child fertility intention via parental burnout. The findings offer preliminary evidence for interventions aimed at mitigating the negative effects of parental burnout. Co-parenting plays a key role as a resource for reducing parental stress, which accords with the findings of Bastiaansen et al. (2021). Besides co-parenting, interventions aimed at improving parents’ ability to regulate their emotions (e.g., cognitive reappraisal intervention, [Rodriguez et al., 2020]) may effectively alleviate the negative effects of parental burnout.
Finally, perhaps the most important practical implication of this study is that grandparent support acts as a protective resource that buffers the positive linkage between work-to-family conflict and parental burnout and mitigates the negative correlation between work-to-family conflict and second-child fertility intention via parental burnout. However, grandparents’ help is limited. In moderating the pathway between work-to-family conflict and parental burnout, the moderating effect of grandparent support weakens when the level of work-to-family conflict is excessively high. Because grandparents cannot completely replace the role of parents, we speculate that when work-to-family conflict is at a moderate level, parents still have time and energy to handle parenting issues that grandparents cannot address. However, when work-to-family conflict becomes too high, parents face a more challenging situation. At this point, although grandparent support can still play a role to some extent, the strength of its effect is diminished. What’s more, grandparent support does not mitigate the positive relationship between family-to-work conflict and parental burnout, nor does it mitigate the indirect negative relationship between family-to-work conflict and second-child fertility intention. Therefore, we expect help interventions from work organizations (e.g., family-friendly program [Rahmani et al., 2021]) to mitigate the negative effects of family-to-work conflict in dual-earner families. This also suggests that although both work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict have a negative impact on parents’ second-child fertility intention, they have different root causes and require different interventions.
Limitations and Future Research
First, in examining the effects of work-family conflict on fertility intentions, we primarily investigated the mediating role of parental burnout, with only a preliminary exploration of job burnout’s potential mediating effect. Future research could incorporate additional mediating variables to comprehensively examine the mediating effects of work-family conflict on fertility intentions, and propose targeted intervention strategies by comparing the relative weights of these mediating effects. Furthermore, future studies could explore additional moderating variables. For instance, some researchers have investigated the moderating role of spousal support in the relationship between work-family conflict and parental burnout (Wang et al., 2024).
Second, although our two-wave longitudinal design provides initial insights into potential causal relationships among variables, it limits our ability to make strong causal inferences and cannot examine potential reciprocal causation between variables. Future research should collect data across more time points and employ more sophisticated longitudinal analytical techniques, such as difference-in-differences and cross-lagged panel analyses, to better observe the dynamic interplay between variables.
Third, to ensure data diversity, our study surveyed schools across cities and towns with varying levels of economic development. However, it is noteworthy that the dual-earner status of couples inherently indicates these families maintain relatively stable economic conditions. Therefore, this study has limitations regarding economic diversity. Future research should expand the sampling frame to include a broader spectrum of income groups, such as gig workers and self-employed individuals. Future research could also attempt to stratify dual-earner couples by occupation types, ensuring coverage of diverse employment categories while comparing model results across families of different socioeconomic levels.
Finally, we advanced one step in the understanding of how work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict impact dual-earner parents’ fertility decisions. Though intentions may be a powerful predictor of fertility, they do not always match outcomes. Moreover, because second-child fertility intention is influenced by a variety of antecedents, it does not remain constant. Therefore, future studies should examine fertility trajectories instead of intentions. Specifically, future research could conduct a longer-term longitudinal survey, splitting the final outcomes of second-child fertility intention into groups (e.g., intention-stability, intention-revision, intention-realization, [Hanappi et al., 2017]) and testing the relationship between the dependent variable and the different second-child fertility intention outcomes separately.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank all families who participated in the survey.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
An ethics approval of the research was granted by the Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC), Xi’an Jiaotong University prior to data collection(Reference No.2001293). The procedures used in the study followed the ethical principles of research formulated by the government. The contents of the questionnaire were all multiple-choice questions with clear instructions and did not involve ethical issues. The Author is respected for the autonomy, privacy, and dignity of all participants involved in the survey, and the datasets contain no personal identities for the participants with their informed consent. All contents of the questionnaire were communicated in advance to the survey participants, who assisted the authors in completing the questionnaire activities out of social responsibility and total voluntariness.
Informed Consent
We are pleased to invite you to participate in a 30-min questionnaire to understand the impact of work-family conflict on couples’ fertility intentions among dual-earner families in China. Your participation in this study is purely voluntary. If you decide to participate, you may refuse to take part in any part of this study or refuse to answer any or all of the questions, and you may withdraw from the study at any time. If you would like more details about the above, or would like information not mentioned here, please do not hesitate to ask the researchers mentioned at the top of the page for a copy.
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The direct effect of work-to-family on job burnout was 0.182, p < 0.001; the direct effect of family-to-work on job burnout was 0.146, p < 0.001; and the direct effect of job burnout on second-child fertility intention was 0.094, p > 0.05.
Work-Family Conflict and Second-Child Fertility Intention in Chinese Dual-Earner Families: Moderated Mediation Model of Parental Burnout and Grandparent Support