Top

Gepubliceerd in:

21-09-2024 | Empirical Research

Grappling with Whiteness: Latent Profiles of White Racial Consciousness and Affect’s Impact on Critical Reflection

Auteurs: Iván Carbajal, Aldo Barrita, Lianelys Cabrera Martinez

Gepubliceerd in: Journal of Youth and Adolescence | Uitgave 3/2025

Abstract

Understood from a critical consciousness framework, White racial identity development involves recognizing and combating White privilege and supremacy. The present study investigated the development of White American young adults’ racial identity through their racial consciousness and racial affect and their combined impact on critical reflection using a person-centered approach via Latent Profile Analysis (LPA). Participants were 716 White identifying participants (M_age = 21.00, SD = 6.20 years; 68% women) who ethnically identified as White (90%) or European American. Participants completed surveys about their White racial consciousness, affect, and critical reflection. The results gave a six-profile solution to understanding White racial identity that can be closely similar to the six statuses proposed by the model of White identity development. However, White racial consciousness is more complex than theorized. The six-profile solution contained insights into how White adults conceive of their Whiteness, both as a racial identity and emotionally. The most illuminating findings of the LPA are in the combinations of identity and affect. The results indicated that even though White individuals are high in racial consciousness, it does not necessarily mean they critically reflect on their privileged position. Further, there was no support for the influence of multiple marginalized identities in helping develop White racial consciousness.

vorige artikel The Developmental Collision Hypothesis: An Empirical Test With Three Generations of Sexual Minority Youth

volgende artikel Pathways to Youth Activism Orientation in STEM: the Role of STEM Classroom Inclusivity and Motivational Beliefs

Alleen toegankelijk voor geautoriseerde gebruikers

The order of the profiles presented does not have any significance, as this is the order in which RStudio outputted the results.

For example, Oregon is 73% White, 14% Latino/Hispanic, 2.3% Black, 5% Asian, and 2% Indigenous (US Census, 2022).

Ayvazian, A. (2010). Interrupting the cycle: The role of allies as agents of change. In M. Adams, W. J. Blumenfeld, C. R. Castañeda, H. W. Hackman, M. L. Peters, & X. Zúñiga (Eds.), Readings for diversity and social justice (2nd ed., pp. 625–628). New York, NY: Routledge.

Barrita, A., & Wong-Padoongpatt, G. (2023). Ethnic Identity and Resilience: A moderated mediation analysis of protective factors for Self-Blame and Racial Microaggressions. Frontiers in Psychology. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1198375.

Bolck, A., Croon, M., & Hagenaars, J. (2004). Estimating latent structure models with categorical variables: One-step versus three-step estimators. Political Analysis, 12(1), 3–27.CrossRef

Briggs, A. S., Hope, E. C., & Cryer-Coupet, Q. R. (2023). Patterns of critical consciousness and associations with sociocultural factors in black adolescents. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 33, 313–331. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2658.CrossRef

Byrd, C. M., & Carter Andrews, D. J. (2016). Variations in students’ perceived reasons for, sources of, and forms of in-school discrimination: A latent class analysis. Journal of School Psychology, 57, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2016.05.001.CrossRefPubMed

Carter, R. T. (1995). The influence of race and racial identity in psychotherapy: Toward a racially inclusive model (Vol. 183). John Wiley & Sons. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=uO9MVtggWucC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=carter+1995+white+identity&ots=lOp9BwVuTf&sig=whH9GpBkTPDhCUnS5MaA-5j3_5g.

Croll, P. R. (2007). Modeling determinants of white racial identity: Results from a new national survey. Social Forces, 86(2), 613–642.CrossRef

Curran, T., Arroyo, A., Fabbricatore, J., & Jiao, J. (2023). White privilege critical consciousness, racial attitudes, and intergroup anxiety among parents and adult children in White families. Communication Monographs, 1–25.

D’Andrea, M. (2004). The impact of racial-cultural identity of group leaders and members. Handbook of Group Counseling and Psychotherapy, 265–282.

Diemer, M. A. (2020). Pushing the envelope: The who, what, when, and why of critical consciousness. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 70, 101192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2020.101192.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Diemer, M. A., & Li, C. H. (2011). Critical consciousness development and political participation among marginalized youth. Child Development, 82(6), 1815–1833. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01650.x.CrossRefPubMed

Diemer, M. A., McWhirter, E. H., Ozer, E. J., & Rapa, L. J. (2015). Advances in the conceptualization and measurement of critical consciousness. The Urban Review, 47, 809–823.CrossRef

Diemer, M. A., Rapa, L. J., Voight, A. M., & McWhirter, E. H. (2016). Critical consciousness: a developmental approach to addressing marginalization and oppression. Child Development Perspectives, 10(4), 216–221. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12193.CrossRef

Diemer, M. A., Frisby, M. B., Pinedo, A., Bardelli, E., Elliot, E., Harris, E., McAlister, S., & Voight, A. M. (2022). Development of the Short Critical Consciousness Scale (ShoCCS). Applied Developmental Science, 26(3), 409–425. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2020.1834394.CrossRef

Dull, B. D., Hoyt, L. T., & Chaku, N. (2022). White adolescents’ racial contexts: Associations with critical action. Child Development, 93(6), 1698–1712. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13812.CrossRefPubMed

Dull, B. D., Hoyt, L. T., Grzanka, P. R., & Zeiders, K. H. (2021). Can white guilt motivate action? The role of civic beliefs. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 50(6), 1081–1097. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-021-01401-7.CrossRefPubMed

Freire, P. (1973). Education for critical consciousness. New York, NY: Continuum.

Frost, D. M., Fine, M., Torre, M. E., & Cabana, A. (2019). Minority stress, activism, and health in the context of economic precarity: results from a national participatory action survey of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and gender non‐conforming youth. American Journal of Community Psychology, 63(3–4), 511–526. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12326.CrossRefPubMed

Grzanka, P. R., Gonzalez, K. A., & Spanierman, L. B. (2019). White supremacy and counseling psychology: A critical–conceptual framework. The Counseling Psychologist, 47(4), 478–529. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000019880843.CrossRef

Grzanka, P. R., Frantell, K. A., & Fassinger, R. E. (2020). The White Racial Affect Scale (WRAS): A measure of white guilt, shame, and negation. The Counseling Psychologist, 48(1), 47–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000019878808.CrossRef

Griffith, E. L., Jin, L., Contractor, A. A., Slavish, D. C. & Vujanovic, A. A. (2022). Heterogeneity in patterns of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and sleep disturbances among firefighters:Latent profile analyses. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 153, 64–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.06.052.CrossRefPubMed

Hazelbaker, T., Brown, C. S., Nenadal, L., & Mistry, R. S. (2022). Fostering anti-racism in white children and youth: Development within contexts. American Psychologist, 77(4), 497–509. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000948.CrossRefPubMed

Heberle, A. E., Rapa, L. J., & Farago, F. (2020). Critical consciousness in children and adolescents: A systematic review, critical assessment, and recommendations for future research. Psychological Bulletin, 146(6), 525.CrossRefPubMed

Helms, J. E. (1984). Toward a theoretical explanation of the effects of race on counseling: A Black and White model. The Counseling Psychologist, 12, 153–165.CrossRef

Helms, J. E. (Ed.). (1990). Contributions in Afro-American and African studies, No. 129. Black and White racial identity: Theory, research, and practice. New York, NY: Greenwood Press.

Helms, J. E. (1995). An update of Helm’s White and people of color racial identity models. In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (pp. 181-191). Thousand Oaks, CA.

Helms, J. E. (2014). Toward a model of White racial identity development. In College student development and academic life (pp. 207–224). Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315051888-12/toward-model-white-racial-identity-development-janet-helms.

Hershberg, R. M., & Johnson, S. K. (2019). Critical reflection about socioeconomic inequalities among White young men from poor and working-class backgrounds. Developmental Psychology, 55(3), 562.CrossRefPubMed

Iyer, A., Leach, C. W., & Crosby, F. J. (2003). White guilt and racial compensation: The benefits and limits of self- focus. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 117–129. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167202238377.CrossRefPubMed

Jemal, A. (2018). Transformative consciousness of health inequities: oppression is a virus and critical consciousness is the antidote. Journal of Human Rights and Social Work, 3(4), 202–215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41134-018-0061-8.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Kline, R. B. (2023). Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling. Guilford Publications.

Lee, S. M., Puig, A., Pasquarella-Daley, L., Denny, G., Rai, A. A., Daltape, A., & Parker, W. M. (2007). Revising the White racial consciousness development scale. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 39(4), 194–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481756.2007.11909798.CrossRef

Loyd, A. B., & Gaither, S. E. (2018). Racial/ethnic socialization for White youth: What we know and future directions. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 59, 54–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2018.05.004.CrossRef

Luter, D. G., Mitchell, A. M., & Taylor, H. L. (2017). Critical consciousness and schooling: The impact of the community as a classroom program on academic indicators. Education Sciences, 7(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci7010025.

Maker Castro, E., Wray-Lake, L., & Cohen, A. K. (2022). Critical consciousness and wellbeing in adolescents and young adults: A systematic review. Adolescent Research Review, 7(4), 499–522. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-022-00188-3.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Malott, K. M., Paone, T. R., Shannon, J., & Jason J. Barr. (2022). From awareness to commitment and action: A longitudinal study of a race‐based counseling course. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmcd.12232.

Malott, K. M., Schaefle, S., Paone, T. R., Cates, J., & Haizlip, B. (2021). Strategies used by whites to address their racism: implications for autonomous white racial identities. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 49(3), 137–151. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmcd.12220.CrossRef

McClanahan, A. (2021). The downfalls of performative white allyship on social media in the #BlackLivesMatter Movement. Munn Scholars Awards. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/munn/7.

Mekawi, Y., Todd, N. R., Yi, J., & Blevins, E. J. (2020). Distinguishing “I don’t see color” from “Racism is a thing of the past”: Psychological correlates of avoiding race and denying racism. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 67(3), 288–302. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000427.CrossRefPubMed

Neville, H. A., Awad, G. H., Brooks, J. E., Flores, M. P., & Bluemel, J. (2013). Color-blind racial ideology: Theory, training, and measurement implications in psychology. American Psychologist, 68(6), 455–466. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033282.CrossRefPubMed

Neblett, E. W., Rivas-Drake, D., & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2012). The promise of racial and ethnic protective factors in promoting ethnic minority youth development. Child Development Perspectives, 6(3), 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00239.x.CrossRef

Quiles, T. B., Hoyt, L. T., Dotson, M. P., Castro, E. M., May, M., & Cohen, A. K. (2023). Who has to act? A qualitative exploration of emerging adults’ critical consciousness during the COVID-19 pandemic. American Journal of Community Psychology, 71(1–2), 136–146.CrossRefPubMed

Rose, L. R. (1996). White identity and counseling White allies about racism. Impacts of Racism on White Americans, 2, 24–47.

Rosenberg, J. M., Beymer, P. N., Anderson, D. J., Van Lissa, C. J., & Schmidt, J. A. (2018). tidyLPA: An R Package to Easily Carry Out Latent Profile Analysis (LPA) using open-source or commercial software. Journal of Open Source Software, 3(30), 978. https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.00978.CrossRef

Rosseel, Y. (2011). Lavaan: Latent Variable Analysis. R package version 0.3-3.

Slavish, D. C., Contractor, A. A., Dietch, J. R., Messman, B., Lucke, H. R., Briggs, M., Thornton, J., Ruggero, C., Kelly, K., Kohut, M., & Taylor, D. J. (2022). Characterizing Patterns of Nurses’ Daily Sleep Health: A Latent Profile Analysis. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 29(5), 648–658. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12529-021-10048-4.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Spanierman, L. B., Cabrera, N. L. (2015). The emotions of White racism and antiracism. In Watson, V., Howard- Wagner, D., Spanierman, L. (Eds), Unveiling Whiteness in the twenty-first century: Global manifestations, transdisciplinary interventions, (pp. 9–28). Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.

Seider, S., Clark, S., & Graves, D. (2020). The development of critical consciousness and its relation to academic achievement in adolescents of color. Child Development, 91(2), e451–e474. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13262.CrossRefPubMed

Spurk, D., Hirschi, A., Wang, M., Valero, D., & Kauffeld, S. (2020). Latent profile analysis: A review and “how to” guide of its application within vocational behavior research. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 120, 103445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2020.103445.CrossRef

Sue, D. W. (2013). Race talk: The psychology of racial dialogues. American Psychologist, 68(8), 663–672. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033681.CrossRefPubMed

Swank, E. (2019). Sexual identities and racial attitudes among Black, Latinx, and White individuals. Journal of Bisexuality, 19(3), 305–336. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299716.2019.1630186.CrossRef

Swank, E. (2022). Deeds, Not Words: Sexual Identities and Antiracist Activism Among White Americans. Journal of Homosexuality, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2022.2087482.

Tatum, B. D. (1997). Why are all the Black kids sitting together in the cafeteria. And Other Conversations About Race, New York, Basic. https://www.academia.edu/download/30905724/tatum-blackkids.pdf.

Thimsen, A. F. (2022). What is performative activism? Philosophy & Rhetoric, 55(1), 83–89. https://doi.org/10.5325/philrhet.55.1.0083.CrossRef

Tyler, C. P., Olsen, S. G., Geldhof, G. J., & Bowers, E. P. (2020). Critical consciousness in late adolescence: Understanding if, how, and why youth act. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 70, 101165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2020.101165.CrossRef

U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Oregon. (2022). Retrieved November 8, 2023, from https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/OR#.

Watts, R. J., Diemer, M. A., & Voight, A. M. (2011). Critical consciousness: Current status and future directions. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2011(134), 43–57. https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.310.

Weller, B. E., Bowen, N. K., & Faubert, S. J. (2020). Latent class analysis: A guide to best practice. Journal of Black Psychology, 46(4), 287–311. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798420930932.CrossRef

Wellman, M. L. (2022). Black squares for black lives? Performative allyship as credibility maintenance for social media influencers on Instagram. Social Media + Society, 8(1), 205630512210804. https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051221080473.CrossRef

Wray-Lake, L., Alvis, L., Plummer, J. A., Shubert, J., & Syvertsen, A. K. (2023). Adolescents’ developing awareness of inequality: Racial and ethnic differences in trajectories. Child Development, 94(2), 439–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13870.CrossRefPubMed

Zou, L. X., & Cheryan, S. (2017). Two axes of subordination: A new model of racial position. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 112(5), 696–717. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000080.CrossRefPubMed

Zong, X., Cheah, C. S. L., & Ren, H. (2022). Chinese American Adolescents’ Experiences of COVID-19-related racial discrimination and anxiety: person-centered and intersectional approaches. Journal of Research on Adolescence: The Official Journal of the Society for Research on Adolescence, 32(2), 451–469. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12696.CrossRefPubMed

Titel: Grappling with Whiteness: Latent Profiles of White Racial Consciousness and Affect’s Impact on Critical Reflection
Auteurs: Iván Carbajal
Aldo Barrita
Lianelys Cabrera Martinez
Publicatiedatum: 21-09-2024
Uitgeverij: Springer US
Gepubliceerd in: Journal of Youth and Adolescence / Uitgave 3/2025
Print ISSN: 0047-2891
Elektronisch ISSN: 1573-6601
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-024-02085-5

Andere artikelen Uitgave 3/2025

Cyber Dating Violence Among Youth and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Empirical Research

Identifying Culturally Relevant School Support Profiles and Links to Academic Functioning in Adolescents

Open Access
Empirical Research

The Developmental Trajectory of Chinese Adolescents’ Self-Compassion and its Relationship with Parenting Styles: a Longitudinal Study

Empirical Research

Adolescents and Social Media: Longitudinal Links Between Motivations for Using Social Media and Subsequent Internalizing Symptoms

Empirical Research

Empathy as a Mediator of the Relation between Peer Influence and Prosocial Behavior in Adolescence: A Meta-Analysis

Empirical Research

Longitudinal Associations of (Un)popularity with Weight Perceptions and Dieting in Adolescence

Open Access
Empirical Research

Bohn Stafleu van Loghum

Welkom bij Scalda & Bohn Stafleu van Loghum

Registreer

Login

Grappling with Whiteness: Latent Profiles of White Racial Consciousness and Affect’s Impact on Critical Reflection

Abstract

Andere artikelen Uitgave 3/2025

Cyber Dating Violence Among Youth and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Identifying Culturally Relevant School Support Profiles and Links to Academic Functioning in Adolescents

The Developmental Trajectory of Chinese Adolescents’ Self-Compassion and its Relationship with Parenting Styles: a Longitudinal Study

Adolescents and Social Media: Longitudinal Links Between Motivations for Using Social Media and Subsequent Internalizing Symptoms

Empathy as a Mediator of the Relation between Peer Influence and Prosocial Behavior in Adolescence: A Meta-Analysis

Longitudinal Associations of (Un)popularity with Weight Perceptions and Dieting in Adolescence

Bohn Stafleu van Loghum

Welkom bij Scalda & Bohn Stafleu van Loghum

Registreer

Login

Deel dit onderdeel of sectie (kopieer de link)

Abstract

Log in om toegang te krijgen

Cyber Dating Violence Among Youth and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Identifying Culturally Relevant School Support Profiles and Links to Academic Functioning in Adolescents

The Developmental Trajectory of Chinese Adolescents’ Self-Compassion and its Relationship with Parenting Styles: a Longitudinal Study

Adolescents and Social Media: Longitudinal Links Between Motivations for Using Social Media and Subsequent Internalizing Symptoms

Empathy as a Mediator of the Relation between Peer Influence and Prosocial Behavior in Adolescence: A Meta-Analysis

Longitudinal Associations of (Un)popularity with Weight Perceptions and Dieting in Adolescence