Understanding Boredom Proneness in Schizotypy: An Exploratory Study Including Substance Use and Sense of Purpose

Experiencing boredom is a natural part of daily life. Though the term boredom, in its colloquial use, denotes a mildly aversive state (Todman, 2003), for certain individuals, it may represent an intolerable emotional state that influences mood and behaviors (Todman, 2007; Eastwood et al., 2012). Prolonged boredom is associated with increased meaninglessness (van Tilburg & Igou, 2017) and a desire but inability to partake in satisfying activities (Eastwood et al., 2012). Subsequently, this distressing internal state can act as a motivator for individuals to engage in either adaptive or maladaptive behaviors intended to change their environment (Bench & Lench, 2019). Thus, boredom may signal the presence of an aversive state where the environment is perceived to be uninteresting and lacking in positive reinforcement by the individual (Todman, 2003, 2007). The influence of boredom on mental health symptomology appears to be steadily gaining momentum within the scientific community. Recent research has suggested the importance of examining the susceptibility towards experiencing boredom: boredom proneness. Specifically, boredom proneness, also referred to as trait boredom proneness, involves the frequency (Bench & Lench, 2019) or propensity (Eastwood et al., 2012) towards experiencing boredom as an intolerance of aversive experiences and a state of under-arousal (Blaszczynski et al., 1990). As such, boredom proneness may play a unique role in mental health, specifically through shared features such as negative affect and substance use (Eastwood et al., 2012; Harris, 2000; Lee et al., 2007; LePera, 2011) within the schizophrenia spectrum (Abbott et al., 2012; Kwapil et al., 2012; Batel et al., 2000; Test et al., 1989).

Despite the frequency in which the terms boredom and boredom proneness are used within the literature, there is a notable lack of clear and distinct definitions (Todman, 2007). These terms are often used interchangeably and inconsistently, contributing to confusion in interpreting findings (Todman, 2007). While there is some debate on whether these constructs are truly discrete or the result of arbitrary divisions within the literature (Todman, 2007), distinctions have been made between the in-the-moment experience of state boredom and the static and enduring nature of trait boredom proneness (Bench & Lench, 2019). Therefore, state boredom might be more easily influenced by moment-to-moment environmental changes (Gerritsen et al., 2015) and could be related to dysfunctions in attentional processes (Eastwood et al., 2012). Boredom proneness appears to represent a more stable personality construct over time (Gerritsen et al., 2015). Regardless of possible fundamental differences between state boredom and trait boredom proneness, certain overlaps may exist (Bench & Lench, 2013, 2019). Namely, both state boredom and trait boredom proneness are considered emotions that arise when an individual has constraints that limit their ability to cope with monotonous and under-stimulating environments (Todman, 2007). Examinations of boredom proneness could be of clinical utility to better understand individual responses to understimulating and uninteresting environments across a range of mental health symptoms.

Boredom proneness may have a nuanced role within the schizophrenia spectrum. Individuals in their teens to early thirties may fall within the “window of risk” for developing psychosis (Drake et al., 2016). The schizophrenia spectrum is theorized to represent a continuum of symptom groupings ranging from sub-clinical indicators (i.e., schizotypy) to clinical presentations relating to schizophrenia and psychosis (Debbané & Barrantes-Vidal, 2015; Kwapil & Barrantes-Vidal, 2015). In particular, higher levels of schizotypy have often been referred to as one of several possible factors that may contribute to an increased liability or prodromal risk for developing psychosis (Lenzenweger, 2006; Meehl, 1990). There are generally three common symptom domains that are presently discussed in the context of schizotypy. Positive schizotypy represents “odd” perceptual experiences, unusual beliefs, and paranoia (Kemp et al., 2022). Negative schizotypy involves diminished experiences in functioning, such as avolition, anhedonia, and affective flattening (Kemp et al., 2022; Kwapil et al., 2022). Disorganized schizotypy is related to difficulties in organizing and/or expressing thoughts, speech, and behavior (Kemp et al., 2022; Kwapil et al., 2022). Prior to the development of clinical symptoms, there may be a period of time where boredom might be especially relevant as an aversive experience, akin to its representation as a negative emotion (Bench & Lench, 2019; Vodanovich et al., 1991). From vulnerability stress models of schizophrenia (Kingdon & Turkington, 2005), the distress inherent in boredom proneness (Blaszczynski et al., 1990) may act as an emotional stressor for an individual. The experience of additional stressors associated with boredom may increase risk in individuals who already have an elevated susceptibility towards developing psychosis. Recent research has suggested that individuals with schizophrenia tend to have elevated levels of boredom, a heightened dissatisfaction with leisure activities, and an overall reduced quality of life (Gerritsen et al., 2015). As such, boredom proneness may also be one of several risk factors for the development of schizophrenia spectrum symptoms. Despite these implications, there is surprisingly little research considering boredom proneness within schizotypy and the schizophrenia spectrum.

Several relationships between boredom proneness and the schizophrenia spectrum have been theorized but not rigorously examined. For example, there have been theoretical suggestions that state boredom and boredom proneness may precipitate the development of hallucinations (Todman, 2003). Further, it has also been acknowledged that boredom proneness is a distinct yet related construct to negative symptoms of the schizophrenia spectrum, such as avolition. However, the exact directionality and distinctions between these constructs are not known (Gerritsen et al., 2015). Negative affect, such as heightened irritability, distress, and nervousness, has long been considered to be part of a constellation of etiological factors for both the schizophrenia spectrum (Abbott et al., 2012; Kwapil et al., 2012) and boredom proneness (Bench & Lench, 2013; Vodanovich et al., 1991). Negative affect may be subject to individual differences as some may experience little to no distress in an uninteresting environment, while others may experience heightened levels of distress. Although boredom proneness may be intuitively undesirable for most individuals, certain schizophrenia spectrum symptoms may be associated with reduced aversion or greater tolerance of non-stimulating experiences. For instance, it is possible that individuals with higher levels of negative symptoms such as avolition or social withdrawal may not initiate behaviors or engage in activities due to increased contentment with minimal environmental stimulation. Conversely, the individual may believe that they are unable to change their environment and thus experience increased negative affect. As there is little to no research present on boredom proneness and schizophrenia spectrum symptoms, it is plausible, though unclear, if the minimal relationships found between boredom proneness and schizophrenia spectrum symptoms would be mirrored in individuals with elevated levels of schizotypy.

The real-life implications of boredom proneness can range from feeling bored in class or work (Harris, 2000) to using substances (Iso-Ahola & Crowley, 1991; Johnston & O’Malley, 1986). Specifically, substance use has often been attributed as a consequence of experiencing boredom in the general population (Mercer-Lynn et al., 2013; Paulson et al., 1990; Wiesbeck et al., 1996) and with individuals who have severe mental health concerns (Batel, 2000; Test et al., 1989). For example, individuals with schizophrenia have reported smoking tobacco, drinking alcohol, and using other drugs as a means to relieve feelings of loneliness and boredom (Batel, 2000; Test et al., 1989). Further, individuals with higher levels of negative schizotypy have endorsed benefits to using substances, such as smoking cigarettes, with reports stating that smoking appeared to decrease boredom levels (Stewart et al., 2013). Understanding boredom as a state phenomenon, which a person is more likely to experience if they have high trait-boredom characteristics, suggests that the current experience is no longer stimulating to the individual. This experience may contribute to the individual choosing to engage in an alternative experience, regardless of any adaptive or maladaptive consequences (Bench & Lench, 2019). However, the literature regarding substance use and schizotypy is largely mixed. Within a study conducted by Barrantes-Vidal and colleagues (2010), positive, but not negative, schizotypy was associated with greater substance use and related impairment.

Individuals with severe mental health concerns such as schizophrenia have reported low levels of purpose in life based on experiences of boredom related to monotony and routineness in daily life (Gonsalvez & Gon, 1983). By extension, higher levels of boredom proneness have been linked to lower levels of quality of life in those with schizophrenia spectrum conditions (Gerritsen et al., 2015). Similar, albeit sparse, relationships have been found regarding boredom proneness and decreased purpose in life (Melton & Schulenberg, 2007). Boredom has also been linked to an increased perception of meaninglessness, which could suggest a difference between boredom and other negative emotions where individuals want to participate in meaningful activities (van Tilburg & Igou, 2017). An individual’s beliefs towards the roles of pleasure perception, their processing capacity for tolerating boredom, and their resource allocation to cope with the distress of boredom (Todman, 2003) can all influence their experience of boredom proneness. As decreased quality of life is routinely linked to poorer prognosis and symptom management (Dong et al., 2019), examining the role of purpose in life within the context of boredom proneness in the schizophrenia spectrum may assist in further elucidating ways to address boredom proneness broadly within this population.

Data collection for the present online study took place from January 2017 to December 2018. Participants were undergraduate students (18 or older) at a mid-sized Northeastern university. Participants were recruited through an introductory psychology course where they could select to participate in a number of different research experiences or an alternative written assignment as a part of a course requirement. Prior to completing the study, all participants reviewed informed consent documentation. If the participants were still interested in completing the study after reviewing the consent information, they continued on to the remainder of the study. If they no longer wished to participate after reviewing the informed consent, they were virtually thanked for their time and redirected to the end of the study. A total of 658 participants were originally recruited for the study. However, 114 participants were ultimately excluded from analyses, with 63 entries having contradictory values on one or two infrequency measures (Chapman & Chapman, 1986) and 51 entries having incomplete data or repeat participation. The final sample included 544 participants (242 identified as males, 296 identified as females, and 6 identified as other gender identities) with ages ranging from 18 to 30 (M = 19.046, SD = 1.318). Participants identified as the following ethnicities: 70.588% White/Caucasian, 7.169% Hispanic/Latino, 10.294% Black/African American, 4.963% Asian/Pacific Islander, 0.551% other ethnicities not listed, and 6.434% multiple ethnicities (participant selected more than one ethnicity option).

The current sample size was derived from an a priori power analysis program (Faul et al., 2007) that indicated at least 111 participants would be needed to reach a low-to-moderate effect (Cohen d = 0.3) and power (1-β error probability) at 0.95. Information about racial identity, immigration history, socioeconomic status, and clinical diagnoses were not collected. This study’s procedures were approved by an institutional review board prior to data collection and complied with APA ethical standards (American Psychological Association, 2017). The data used in this study’s analyses are available at https://​osf.​io/​rzk29/​?​view_​only=​1795430767844ae6​8e1b6d7b6e431dc4​. The data was analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 29). The current study’s design and analyses were not pre-registered.

The Boredom Proneness Scale (BPS; Farmer & Sundberg, 1986) was used to measure the trait construct of being susceptible to experiencing boredom. Responses were scored via a revised 7-point Likert scale adapted to replace the traditional true/false format (Vodanovich & Watt, 2016). The measure consisted of 28 questions, and scores ranged from 1 (“Highly Disagree’’) to 7 (“Highly Agree”). The current sample’s Cronbach’s alpha demonstrated good reliability (α = 0.814).

The Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire Brief-Revised (SPQ-BR; Cohen et al., 2010) was used to measure schizotypy levels across three subscales (positive, negative, disorganized). Thirty-two items were represented on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (“Strongly disagree”) to 4 (“Strongly agree”). Internal consistency for the current sample ranged from good to excellent for total schizotypy (α = 0.908), positive schizotypy (α = 0.843), negative schizotypy (α = 0.863), and disorganized schizotypy (α = 0.840).

The Lifestyle and Habits Questionnaire Brief (LHQ-B; Dinzeo et al., 2014) was used to measure specific lifestyle behaviors and tendencies. Two out of eight subscales were used for the present study to measure sense of purpose (3 items) and substance use (8 items). All items were represented on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1(“Strongly disagree”) to 5 (“Strongly agree”). Each category received a total score, with a higher score indicating a higher sense of purpose and healthier substance use behaviors (i.e., reduced substance use). The potential relationship between boredom proneness and substance use can be provided as an example of the directionality of this measure. A negative association between boredom proneness and substance use, as measured by the LHQ-B, would suggest that high boredom proneness scores are associated with greater/higher levels of substance use behaviors. Reliability was moderate for the sense of purpose subscale (α = 0.748) and good for the substance use behavior subscale (α = 0.882).

Two items regarding alcohol and tobacco use were included from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5 (DSM-5) Self-Rated Level 1 Cross-Cutting Symptom Measure-Adult (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Each item started with “During the past TWO WEEKS, how much (or how often) have you been bothered by the following problems?” followed by “Drinking at least 4 drinks of any kind of alcohol in a single day” and “Smoking any cigarettes, a cigar, or pipe, or using snuff or chewing tobacco?” All responses were scored on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (“None/not at all”) to 4 (“Severe/nearly every day”).

The Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND; Heatherton et al., 1991) was used to assess participants’ physical nicotine dependence. A combination of six yes/no and multiple-choice questions were used to measure dependence and the amount of cigarettes smoked per day. Yes/no questions were scored from 0 to 1, and multiple-choice questions were scored from 0 to 3. A higher total score indicates higher nicotine dependence. Only individuals who endorsed smoking nicotine-based cigarettes were prompted with the FTND items (n = 30). Internal consistency for the current sample for nicotine dependence was lower than recommended (α = 0.606).

The Positive Affect Negative Affect Scale (PANAS; Watson et al., 1988) was used to measure positive and negative affect. Twenty items were assessed using a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (very slightly or not at all) to 5 (extremely). The Cronbach’s alpha for the current sample showed good internal consistency for positive affect (α = 0.902) and negative affect (α = 0.855).

All distributions were normal except for perceived distress from alcohol use, perceived distress from tobacco use, and nicotine dependence scores, which were all positively skewed. Gender and ethnicity differences were present in this sample. Individuals endorsing minority gender identities (M = 72.33, SD = 21.89) had higher levels of total schizotypy F(2, 541) = 5.10, p =.006 than males (M = 52.76, SD = 17.93). For positive schizotypy F(2, 541) = 7.309, p <.001, males (M = 18.90, SD = 8.75) endorsed lower levels than females (M = 21.34, SD = 9.17) and minority gender identities (M = 28.33, SD = 11.25). Females (M = 12.33, SD = 2.39) had higher levels of sense of purpose F(2, 541) = 5.685, p =.004 than males (M = 11.64, SD = 2.56). Additionally, females (M = 33.29, SD = 6.45) also had reduced substance use behaviors F(2, 541) = 7.628, p <.001 as compared to males (M = 30.95, SD = 7.43). Males (M = 29.76, SD = 8.21) had significantly higher levels of positive affect F(2, 541) = 3.736, p =.024 than females (M = 27.74, SD = 9.11). Significant results were found for negative affect F(2, 541) = 3.505, p =.031. However, the post hoc results did not reveal group differences. Kruskal-Wallis tests showed that significant differences are present between males and females in regards to perceived distress towards tobacco (H(2) = 18.851, p <.001) and alcohol use (H(2) = 7.705, p =.021) with males reporting higher use than females.

For ethnicity differences, individuals identifying as Black/African American (M = 13.04, SD = 2.22) had higher levels of sense of purpose F(5, 538) = 2.971, p =.012 than those identifying as White/Caucasian (M = 11.84, SD = 2.53). Similar patterns were present where those identifying as Black/African American (M = 34.54, SD = 5.35) had reduced substance use behaviors F(5, 538) = 3.339, p =.006 than individuals identifying as White/Caucasian (M = 31.53, SD = 7.27). Additionally, Kruskal-Wallis tests showed that ethnicity differences were found for perceived distress regarding alcohol use H(5) = 16.802, p =.005, where it appears that those identifying as White/Caucasian had higher levels of perceived distress from alcohol use than individuals identifying as Asian/Pacific Islanders, Black/African American, and those with multiple ethnicity identities.

Partial correlations (Table 1) were used to evaluate the relationships between variables while controlling for the effects of boredom proneness. The influence of boredom proneness was evaluated by comparing the correlation coefficient and significance values of the partial and zero-order correlations. If the strength of the partial correlation was weaker than the zero-order correlation, boredom proneness may have had some influence over the relationship. Levels of boredom proneness appeared to partially account for the negative correlations between substance use (LHQ-B) and both positive and disorganized schizotypy. Similar relationships emerged between several other variables: the negative correlations between sense of purpose and disorganized schizotypy, the negative zero-order correlations between positive schizotypy and both sense of purpose and positive affect that changed to a positive directionality after controlling for boredom proneness, the negative correlation between positive affect and disorganized schizotypy, the positive correlation between distress relating to alcohol use and disorganized schizotypy, and the positive correlation between distress relating to tobacco use and positive schizotypy. In considering the relationships between negative schizotypy and both substance use and distress relating to alcohol use, boredom proneness appeared to act as a suppressor variable, as the partial correlation was stronger than the zero-order correlation. For several relationships, the partial and zero-order correlations were both significant, where the partial correlation decreased, though maintained statistical significance. For instance, boredom proneness may partially influence the positive relationship between negative affect and the schizotypy subscales. Additionally, this pattern applies to the negative relationships between negative schizotypy and both positive affect and sense of purpose, as well as the positive association between disorganized schizotypy and distress relating to tobacco use. No significant zero-order or partial correlations were found when examining the relationship between nicotine dependence and the schizotypy subscales.

Pearson (parametric) and Spearman (nonparametric) correlations (Table 2) were used to examine relationships among the variables. As anticipated, boredom proneness scores were positively correlated with the total and schizotypy subscale scores. Similarly, boredom proneness scores were positively related to negative affect and negatively related to positive affect. Sense of purpose was negatively correlated with boredom proneness. Through a general substance use subscale (LHQ-B), where lower scores indicated potentially increased substance use, a negative correlation emerged with boredom proneness. In other words, this finding suggests a relationship between high boredom proneness levels and greater/higher substance use, or low boredom proneness levels and low substance use. Additionally, through nonparametric correlations, boredom proneness was very weakly positively correlated with distress relating to alcohol and tobacco use. The correlation between boredom proneness and nicotine dependence was not statistically significant (p =.187).

Hierarchical linear regression models (Table 3) were used to examine the prediction of substance use variables by schizotypy levels above and beyond boredom proneness. In predicting perceived alcohol use distress, both demographic factors were significant predictors. Higher boredom proneness levels were predictive of increased distress related to alcohol use, whereas higher levels of negative schizotypy were predictive of reduced distress to alcohol use. In the second model, perceived tobacco use distress was significantly predicted by demographic variables and higher levels of boredom proneness. None of the schizotypy subscales were significant predictors. For the third model, nicotine dependence was not predicted by demographic factors, boredom proneness, or the schizotypy subscales. In the fourth model, substance use behaviors, as measured by the LHQ-B, were significantly predicted by gender and ethnicity. Higher levels of boredom proneness predicted greater substance use behaviors. The negative and positive schizotypy subscales significantly predicted substance use behaviors. Higher levels of negative schizotypy contributed to lower substance use behaviors, whereas higher levels of positive schizotypy predicted greater substance use behaviors. Additionally, higher levels of disorganized schizotypy predicting greater substance use behaviors was approaching significance (p =.064).

Based on reviewer comments during the review phase of this manuscript, we examined four models using Hayes PROCESS 4.2 to evaluate the possible moderation effect of boredom proneness in the relationship between total schizotypy and substance use/sense of purpose. Results did not indicate a significant moderation effect of boredom proneness on any of our outcome variables. This finding may suggest that schizotypy and boredom proneness may independently contribute to the prediction of substance use/sense of purpose without moderating the relationship. Future research is needed to further test these associations.

Boredom proneness, though part of daily life, may have a unique role in the formation and maintenance of mental health symptoms. The present study found broad support for the hypotheses linking boredom proneness to schizotypy subscales, with a specific emphasis on negative schizotypy. Preliminary evidence suggests that boredom proneness may be particularly relevant to the schizophrenia spectrum through shared associations with negative affect, substance use, and sense of purpose, as seen within the literature (Eastwood et al., 2012; Harris, 2000; Abbott et al., 2012; Kwapil et al., 2012; Batel et al., 2000; Test et al., 1989). The discussion below is structured based on the salience of the relationships found in the current study, beginning with the most prominent findings. First, boredom proneness’ association with schizotypy and affectivity are discussed. Then, substance use and sense of purpose are discussed as they relate to one another, boredom proneness, and the other variables of interest.

As anticipated, the current study found evidence suggesting that higher levels of boredom proneness were related to elevated negative, positive, and disorganized schizotypy. Given these preliminary findings, increases in boredom proneness may represent one of several possible premorbid individual risk factors for the development of schizophrenia spectrum symptoms. This interpretation is further bolstered by strong correlations between boredom proneness and negative affect, an established etiological factor within the schizophrenia spectrum (Kingdon & Turkington, 2005). Both boredom proneness and negative affect were positively related to all three schizotypy subscales and negatively related to sense of purpose, whereas the inverse was true for positive affect. Consistent with the literature (Bench & Lench, 2019; Vodanovich et al., 1991), boredom proneness may represent an underlying predisposition towards negative emotionality that could act as a non-specific risk factor. Taken together, assessing boredom proneness and its role in negative affectivity may provide an improved metric for identifying underlying affective experiences that could subserve symptoms and interactions with one’s environment.

Of the three schizotypy subscales, boredom proneness yielded the strongest relationship with negative schizotypy. Both boredom proneness and negative schizotypy were related to elevated negative affect and reduced levels of positive affect and sense of purpose. These patterns are consistent with the notion that both boredom proneness (Bench & Lench, 2019; Vodanovich et al., 1991) and negative schizotypy (Kwapil et al., 2012) have theoretical foundations in negative emotionality. In addition to this connection between variables, those with higher negative emotionality may also be more prone to using substances (McHugh & Kneeland, 2019). Given these associations, engaging in substance use behaviors may, in some cases, be intended to manage symptoms of negative emotionality (Hogarth, 2020; McHugh & Kneeland, 2019; Swendsen et al., 2010). The present study’s pattern of findings supported this behavior trend, where distress relating to tobacco use was associated with increased negative affect. In addition, as stated above, the present pattern of findings suggests that elevated boredom proneness was associated with increased negative schizotypy. However, while negative schizotypy predicted lower substance use behaviors (LHQ-B) and reduced distress relating to alcohol use, no correlations emerged between negative schizotypy and any of the substance use variables of interest. Further, boredom proneness operated as a suppressor variable, such that when boredom proneness was controlled for, a weak relationship emerged between negative schizotypy and both reduced substance use habits (LHQ-B) and reduced distress relating to alcohol use. As individuals with higher levels of boredom proneness are more likely to engage in substance use to potentially reduce the effects of boredom (Harris, 2000; Iso-Ahola & Crowley, 1991; Johnston & O’Malley, 1986), the influence of boredom proneness may negate the otherwise “protective” benefits that negative schizotypy appears to provide to certain types of substance use. In particular, negative schizotypy, which is characterized by elements of social withdrawal (Kwapil et al., 2012), may provide a barrier to engaging with substance use through decreased interest in participating in social environments that often coincide with substance use (Dinzeo & Thayasivam, 2021). Given that boredom proneness slightly reduced the strength of the relationship between the schizotypy subscales and negative affect, these findings may suggest that boredom proneness may represent a related yet distinct subset of negative affectivity.

Higher levels of substance use behaviors (LHQ-B) were also associated with positive and disorganized schizotypy, with weak positive relationships emerging between boredom proneness and distress relating to alcohol and tobacco use. Thus, unlike with negative schizotypy, where there seems to be a protective element in relation to substance use (Dinzeo & Thayasivam, 2021), the positive association with other schizotypy domains suggests substance use may be acting as a means to cope with or escape feelings of boredom (Stewart et al., 2013; Test, 1989). Assessing and intervening on these potential maladaptive strategies may have clinical benefits in those who are prone to boredom. An increase in meaningful activities could be one possible intervention to reduce boredom and, in turn, reduce substance use that is driven by the desire to relieve these feelings, as seen in recommendations pertaining to smoking cessation by Peckham and colleagues (2016). Taken together, reasons for why an individual uses substances may be important to consider when assessing the extent to which boredom proneness influences substance use. From an individual differences perspective, pursuing meaningful activities may influence how an individual responds to a boredom proneness questionnaire when considering its valence towards distress. Thus, assessments should be tailored to recognize boredom proneness not only as a motivating factor towards substance use and mental health symptoms but also as potential motivation towards pursuing meaningful activities.

Engagement in meaningful activities is also related to perceptions of sense of purpose (Eakman, 2013; Hooker et al., (2020; Tov et al., 2021). As stated above, boredom proneness was negatively related to sense of purpose in the current study. In other words, decreased levels of purpose were linked with elevations in boredom proneness. This is consistent with findings within the clinical literature, which suggests that individuals with schizophrenia and other severe mental health conditions report lower levels of purpose in life secondary to the monotony related to boredom in daily life (Gonsalvez & Gon, 1983). Similar, although sparse, relationships have been found regarding boredom proneness and decreased purpose in life in the general population (Melton & Schulenberg, 2007). Further, as higher levels of boredom proneness have been linked to lower quality of life levels in those with schizophrenia spectrum conditions (Gerritsen et al., 2015), there may be a clinical benefit to clearly assessing boredom proneness levels to increase one’s sense of purpose and quality of life. This may also suggest that boredom proneness may act as a general marker of distress for some individuals and potentially underlies the relationship between elevated schizotypy levels and purpose. For example, when controlling for boredom proneness, the negative relationship between sense of purpose and disorganized schizotypy decreased, with no marked changes for negative schizotypy. The strength of the relationship between sense of purpose and positive schizotypy also decreased when controlling for boredom proneness. Additionally, the directionality of this correlation changed from negative to positive, where the positive partial correlation did not reach statistical significance. These findings align with previous research that links boredom and increased meaninglessness, thereby highlighting a potential difference between boredom and other negative emotions when individuals want to participate in meaningful activities (van Tilburg & Igou, 2017).

Similarly, when controlling for boredom proneness through partial correlations, boredom proneness also appeared to reduce the strength of the already weak, negative relationships between positive affect and disorganized schizotypy. Controlling for boredom proneness also reduced the strength of the association between positive affect and positive schizotypy. Similar to the partial correlation findings for sense of purpose and positive schizotypy, the directionality of this correlation changed from negative to positive. Boredom proneness can be influenced by a variety of factors, such as an individual’s ability to allocate resources to tolerate and cope with the distress of boredom (Todman, 2003). Therefore, individuals at risk for developing a schizophrenia spectrum condition, who experience prolonged monotonous environments without the perceived ability to impact change, may be at increased risk for stress-related psychosis symptom development. A similar problematic outcome may exist for some individuals with low boredom proneness who have resources but a lack of desire to change their environment. These individuals may have a greater tolerance for under-stimulating environments and may not seek preventative services and interventions. In considering the desire to move towards more stimulating and meaningful environments (Eastwood et al., 2012; van Tilburg & Igou, 2017), having a strong sense of purpose may act as a protective factor from the distress relating to boredom proneness, which may have preventative value in those with high levels of schizotypy. Focusing on bolstering one’s sense of purpose and teaching ways to recognize and alter understimulating environments may be of therapeutic value.

The present study appears to be among the first to explore and establish baseline evidence of boredom proneness’ association with schizotypy in the context of substance use and sense of purpose. Preliminary insights provided some indication that individuals with elevated schizotypy, especially negative schizotypy, experience more boredom proneness, leaving room for future research to examine further how individuals interact with their environments. There appears to be continued utility in understanding the emotional influence and presence of boredom proneness through routine assessments, which may assist the development of theory and interventions centered on identifying shared risk factors (e.g., substance use, affectivity, reductions in sense of purpose) for schizophrenia spectrum conditions. However, additional research is needed to fully understand the relationships among these variables in those at risk for psychosis or manifest diagnoses.